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Austrian monk and botanist Gregor Mendel (1822 - 1884) experimented with more than 28,000 pea plants and discovered how hereditary characteristics, such as height and color, are transmitted from parents to offsprings. He observed how plant's offspring display recessive and/or dominant characteristics. From these results, he was able to formulate his eponymous laws of heredity, which are very much the foundation of modern genetics. His work was largely rejected and ridiculed during his lifetime; but its true significance was ultimately realized upon its rediscovery sixteen years after his death. Thus, Mendel became known as the "father of genetics."

Genes Are Transmitted via Chromosomes (1910s - 1920s)

(The 22 autosomes are numbered according to size. The remaining two chromosomes, X and Y, are the sex chromosomes. This above image of the human chromosomes lined up by pairs is called a karyotype.)

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American embryologist and geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866 - 1945) studied fruit flies for many years by mutating them through physical, chemical, and radiational methods, and then performing crossbreeding tests to find inheritable mutations. Some of the results exhibited Mendelian inheritance patterns, leading him to the conclusion that some traits are sex-linked; and that these traits are probably carried on one of the sex chromosomes (X or Y). Through the use of chromosome recombination, Morgan and his students were able to develop the first genetic map and write the influential book "The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity" that advanced the "Mendelian-chromosome theory."

Genes Regulate Biochemical Events (1930s)

(George Beadle)

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American geneticists George Beadle (1903 - 1989) and Edward Tatum (1909 - 1975) exposed neurospora, a type of bread mold, to x-rays; and learned that the resulting mutation causes changes in the production of enzymes responsible for metabolism and synthesis of essential nutrients. These experiments provided evidence that there is a direct link between genes and enzyme reaction, leading them to propose the "one gene-one enzyme" theory.

Tranposons (1940s)

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In her attempt to explain the changing color patterns in maize, American cytogeneticist Barbara McClintock (1902 - 1992) discovered transposons, sometimes referred to as "jumping genes." Transposons are DNA sections that can jump to different areas within the genome of a single cell; and in due course, cause mutations by either increasing or decreasing the amount of DNA, somehow resulting in diseases that include hemophilia, severe immunodeficiency and predisposition to cancer.

DNA Contains Genetic Information (1920s - 1950s)

(Linus Pauling)

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A number of scientists were able to establish that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the chemical source of genetic information. Canadian-born American physician and molecular biologist Oswald Avery (1877 - 1955) proved that genes and chromosomes are made up of DNA. American chemist Linus Pauling (1901 - 1994) found that the molecular structure of amino acids and peptides are helical or spiral in shape. Ultimately, Austrian biochemist Erwin Chargaff discovered that certain nitrogen bases in DNA are arranged at a ratio of almost one-to-one, strongly hinting to its base-pair structure.

DNA Is a Double Helix (1950s)

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American molecular biologist James Watson (1928 - ) and English physicist Francis Crick (1916 - 2004) described the molecular structure of DNA, which is made up of two long helical nucleotide strands, each going in opposite direction from the other. The matching base pairs interconnect in the middle of the double helix, maintaining the distance between them. They demonstrated that each strand is a pattern of the other, replicating itself without any structural modification except for occasional errors or mutations.

The Genetic Code (1960s)

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American biochemist Marshall Nirenberg (1927 - ) headed a team that was able to break apart the DNA and discover the genetic code of the amino acid phenylalanine, which contains a sequence of three uracil bases (a form of nucleotide found in RNA). The team went on to determine the nucleotide make-up of more than fifty tri-nucleotides or codons.

Ribonucleic acid (1960s)

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Several scientists detected a chemical in cellular nucleus and cytoplasm that was quite similar to the DNA in structure, called ribonucleic acid (RNA). It has been found to play a key role in protein synthesis, conveyance of genetic information and other essential chemical functions of a cell.

Restriction Enzymes (1950s - 1960s)

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American microbiologists Daniel Nathans (1928 - 1999) and Hamilton Smith (1931 - ), together with Swiss geneticist Werner Arber (1929 - ), discovered restriction enzymes (or restriction endonucleases), which are enzymes that can recognize and cut specific sequences of DNA. Their discovery paved the way to the development of recombinant DNA technology (wherein artificial DNA is engineered through the insertion or combination of DNA to induce or alter a trait for a specific purpose), that made it possible, for instance, the large scale manufacture of human insulin for diabetics using E. coli bacteria.

RNA Splicing (1970s)

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Several groups of scientists discovered the process of RNA splicing. The DNA is first copied or transcribed to produce complementary pre-messenger RNA molecules, which carry the necessary genetic instruction for a cell to synthesize protein. For still unknown reasons, the pre-messenger RNA strands are then spliced or modified to generate mature messenger RNA (mRNA). Errors in the RNA splicing process due to gene mutations or improperly spliced RNA molecules can cause the production of altered proteins that result in diseases.

DNA Fingerprinting (1980s)

(The first DNA fingerprint.)

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British geneticist Alec Jeffreys (1950 - ) found that some DNA sequences are unique to each individual after studying x-rays of DNA samples taken from a friend's family. Upon realizing the impact of his discovery, he invented and developed DNA fingerprinting (now called DNA profiling) that exploits dissimilarities in the genetic code to identify individuals, leading the birth of DNA forensics. The first forensic application of his technique was to hunt down the rapist and murderer of two teenage girls, Lynda Mann and Dawn Ashworth, who were killed in 1983 and 1986 respectively. The suspect, Colin Pitchfork, was identified and found guilty of murder after DNA samples taken from him matched with the semen samples taken from the two dead girls. The method has also proven helpful in resolving paternity and immigration disputes.

RNA Interference (1990s)

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In their investigation into the regulation of muscle protein production, American molecular biologists Craig Mello (1960 - ) and Andrew Fire (1959 - ) learned that some small sections of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), which perfectly matches the sequences of a given gene, can inhibit the expression of that gene in a mechanism known as RNA interference (RNAi). Many scientists believe that the discovery has wide-ranging applications, especially in the field of medicine and biotechnology, expressing the hope that drugs can be formulated to induce RNAi with the purpose of inhibiting the expression of disease-causing genes.

Humans Have Around 25,000 Genes (2000s)

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The Human Genome Project was an international research program tasked to sequence the human DNA and identify all human genes. It has discovered and identified approximately 25,000 genes, which was far less than the majority of scientists have estimated. The true understanding of the human genome will hopefully lead to advances in medicine and biotechnology, eventually leading to cures for critical illnesses as cancer, cystic fibrosis and Alzheimer's disease.

However, now; in the year 2008 we are perhaps the closest we have ever been to realising, if not true immortality, life extension the likes of which have never before been possible. While there are numerous moral, social and economical arguments about life extension, none will be discussed in this article. What I will list in this article are five of the most probable advances in technology which offer us vastly extended, or even eternal lives (of a sort).

Cybernetic Immortality or 'Mind Uploading'

The practice of 'scanning' a human brain and recording its state at a given time onto a non-biological substrate is a concept that has been explored by many science fiction writers (notably William Gibson, Peter Hamilton and Ian M. Banks). Whilst this process might arguably fail to preserve a person's consciousness or 'soul', the concept of being able to store a copy of your brain to 'download' a new version of yourself could be considered a form of immortality.

While this process is not yet possible, scientists are continually making progress in the study of the human brain, and the production of computers that work more and more like their biological counterparts. Advances in our understanding of how signals travel and originate in the brain, how data is stored and organised as memories and novel methods of scanning human tissue are all making the possibility of creating a hard copy of someone's consciousness and memories seem more and more real.

Chips have been made which can interface with the brain, or mimic parts of it; neuroscientist Ted Berger of the University of Southern California has produced a microchip (about a millimetre squared in size) which can translate signals from a rat's brain into code it understands, and send signals back in a format the brain can use.

Whilst hardware like this has a long way to go, as does the understanding required to program these signals into useful forms, the progress is tantalizing. Berger predicts that the first human trials of this chip in treating Alzheimer's patients are no more than 15 years away, which means that the first working brain implants could be coming within our lifetimes; indeed, if progress continues at this rate, a full copy of the brain might not be too fantastical an idea after all.

But whilst we're busy replicating the brain, why stop there? Replacement eyes, ears, arms, legs and many other organs are in production as we speak. Artificial hearts are making great progress and an artificial bladder has been produced for the first time ever. This opens up the road for humans to gradually replace parts of themselves as they 'break down', effectively maintaining themselves as one would a car, or even upgrading parts as with a home pc. Nevertheless, the question remains; where does our humanity end? What do we become when we are more machine than man, and if we were to ultimately replace all our parts with superior artificial ones, could we still be considered human?

DNA Therapy and Genetic Engineering

If the body is a machine, DNA is both the schematic and the programming. Every aspect of our lives, from our weight to our happiness, our height, looks, strengths or weaknesses and even personalities are in some way influenced by our DNA. If we could change this schematic, rewrite the code, the possibility of extending and improving our capacity for life would be almost endless.

And science is gradually achieving just that ability. Already the human genome has been sequenced, and over 100 Gigabases (100,000,000,000 bases; the 'letters' of the genetic code) from various species including us have been documented and stored. Whilst we don't yet know the specific function of most of these genes, they are gradually revealing their purposes to us.

Genes have been found which relate to weight gain or loss, inherited disease, physical characteristics, sexual orientation and even ageing. With this knowledge, scans of people's genome could be made which allow personalised medical treatment and diets, and could explain many ailments for which we as of yet have no cure. Changes could be made to the genes which regulate our appetites to discourage overeating, and genes linked to ageing could be modified or replaced to allow us to live longer and repair ourselves more effectively. Genes from other species could be used in our bodies to code for desirable characteristics, and potentially damaging genes which code for inherited disease or malformation can be removed and repaired in the foetus.

Whilst this is all well and good, we've got a long way to go before any of this becomes a reality. Research is going on regarding the changing of an adult's DNA (gene therapy), but progress is slow, whilst the editing of babies' genes, producing 'designer babies' evokes a huge amount of controversy.

Nevertheless, progress is being made, and with every step forwards we come closer to the dream of being able to edit our bodies how we wish to suit our lifestyles and increase longevity. Viruses are being experimented with in the field of gene therapy, where they infect a body and insert or remove genes, and new genes coding for different characteristics are being found every day.

Stem Cell Research

The cells that make up our body invariably age, and die, and are replaced, until old age reduces our ability to replace dead cells to the extent that we cannot keep going, and our life ends.

But what if we could boost that repair system?

Stem cells are a type of cell found in both embryos and adults (though in differing forms). These cells are capable of renewing themselves via mitosis, and can differentiate into a wide range of mature cells, thereby allowing a foetus to develop, and an adult body to repair itself easily.

So what if these cells could be collected or even produced artificially, given to people whose own repair systems need a boost, and stimulated to grow into the cells the patient needs? Ageing could effectively be halted, as organs would not deteriorate and any dead cells could be replaced with fresh ones. Alternatively, these cells could be used to produce entire organs outside of the body, and these could be transplanted as and when a given organ fails. A form of stem cell therapy already exists for some conditions, notably bone marrow transplants for leukaemia patients (allowing the patients to produce new blood cells and immune cells over a long term when their own natural ability to do so has been damaged).

Whilst research into stem cells looks promising, controversy in the field has slowed progress dramatically, both in terms of production and use of the cells. Cells harvested from foetuses are argued to be morally wrong, and opponents of the research argue that embryonic stem cell technologies are a slippery slope to reproductive cloning and could devalue human life. Faked research has been published about the topic, particularly from Korean researcher Hwang Woo-Suk, who announced that he had produced embryonic stem cell lines from unfertilised human eggs; the lines were later shown to be fake.

The possibility of manipulating adult stem cells to act like their embryonic counterparts has, in principle, been demonstrated, but not enough progress has been made to remove the controversy surrounding usage of embryonic cells.

If stem cell research continues, tissue regeneration and age-prevention therapies look to be at least partly possible within our lifetimes.

Cryonics

Cryonics (not to be confused with cryogenics) is the low-temperature preservation of humans and other animals which current medicine cannot sustain, in the hopes that future techniques can be used to repair them.

This method of 'life extension' is already legal and practised in many places in the world (for example, in the USA, where the patient has to be legally deceased and the heart demonstrated to have stopped before preservation is permitted). The patient is pumped full of chemicals called 'cryoprotectants' which prevent damage from ice crystals and the preservation process, and then is cooled to around 77K (-196°C), preserving the body in the state it was in at the time of 'death'.

Whilst dead in legal and conventional terms, and current cryopreservation methods are irreversible with current technology, the hope is that the patient can be resuscitated at some future point, and any damage from either the cause of death or the preservation process itself can be repaired.

Whilst cryopreservation offers an extension to life by making future technologies potentially accessible to the patient, it in itself does not extend life, rather it preserves the body as well as possible at the point of death.

Calorie Restriction

The lowering of energy intake, or calories, when practised in an otherwise healthy diet, has been demonstrated in laboratory experiments to extend the maximum lifespan of almost every species tested so far, including rats, yeast, fruit flies, and nematodes.

In rats, a roughly 50% decrease in calorie intake compared to an animal that freely fed led to an extension of lifespan by the same amount. Experiments on calorie restriction are now being carried out on primates, to see if the same will work with humans, and many scientists are confident that similar results will be seen.

Whilst the other technologies mentioned in this article are not yet scientifically possible, calorie restriction is possible now, for anyone who decides to practice it, and the potential benefits are massive,

Nevertheless, a high level of scepticism exists in the scientific community about the practice, as some scientists suggest that the practice only works in short-lived species which have evolved to respond to feast and famine with alterations in longevity.

Proving that the practice is generally applicable to most species is a challenge, but the results will certainly be seen far before any of the other technologies in this article. Along with calorie restriction, a healthy diet with the right levels of nutrients is perhaps the best form of life extension we have available at this point in time. Whilst this might sound trivial, it is only because of advances in nutritional science that we know what a 'good diet' is, and more progress is expected even here.

Stem cells are found in multi-cellular organisms. They are able to make themselves into specialized cells. The two types of stem cells are embryonic stem cells, which are found in blastocysts and adult stem cells which are found in the tissue of grown organisms. When an organism is developing, stem cells can be used to make any type of tissue. In adult organisms, stem cells help repair damages tissue.

Stem cells can be grown to make any type of tissue the body may need. The problem is in order to be able to use stem cells, a human embryo must be destroyed to get the cells needed. Many ethical debates have taken place in regards to stem cell research, some people believe human embryos are alive and they should be treated at people. Although other methods of using stem cells that don't need to be taken from human embryos are being researched, the debate rages on. Others think the outcome of stem cells would benefit medical uses greatly. A law is in effect that forbids federal funding for stem cell research.

Stem cells are used in treatments for diseases such as leukemia, bone marrow transplants help leukemia patients. Researchers hope that advancements in stem cell research can be made, so diseases such as: cancer, Parkinson's, along with countless other conditions and diseases will be a thing of the past. Below is an illustration of embryonic mouse stem cells that are highlighted.

The Human Genome Project, also known as HGP is a world wide project. Many different peoples have one common goal, that goal is to understand everything possible about a human's genetic make up. They are determined to identify all human genes and DNA base pairs. The project was established in 1990 by James Watson. Researchers and those associated with the project believe this is a very important step in finding cures and making medical advances. This project was made possibly by funding and support from the U.S. and the U.K.

The results from the HGP will not only greatly benefit medicine and biotechnology, it will help in curing many diseases such as, cancer, liver disease, Alzheimer's. Etc. Along with all of the medicinal uses, the Human Genome Project will open many doors to new discoveries. Evolutionary questions are being asked in terms on molecular biology. Some believe the HGP will be an evolutionary milestone, such as ribosomes and organelles. Illustrated below is human chromosome 3 from a human genetic map.

The human HapMap project, or International HapMap project is a group which is determined to make a map of the human genome. This discovery would be able to see different patterns of genetic variation in humans. The project is supported and funded by private academies and agencies along with countries such as China, Canada, America, and England. The purpose of the project is for scientists and researchers to be able to use it as a resource for determining genes that affect health, environment factors and responses to drugs.

It's known that many common diseases occur due to environment and gene combinations. The project was slated to take 3 years and in October of 2007 all of the data was released. The information provided by the HapMap project is free to all researchers and can be found on the website www.hapmap.org .

Gene therapy is used to treat diseases. Genes are inserted into a patients cells and tissues. For hereditary diseased the mutant alleles are replaced with normal, functioning ones. Although it is still recent and new, gene therapy has showed success and seems to be working great. There are also different variations of the process.

The first gene therapy was done on a little girl named Ashanthi DeSilva. She had a rare disease that made her highly susceptible to disease. She was often confined to her own home and avoided contact with others outside the family. Her immune system was so bad that a common cold took large amounts of antibiotics to treat. Gene therapy was used, her white blood cells were taken to a lab and the proper gene was inserted. The white blood cells entered her bloodstream and that strengthened her immune system by 40%.

What happens is a mutated gene or defective gene is replaced in the genome by a normal one. Scientists use a carrier called a vector to deliver the normal gene where it's needed. Scientists have been able to use viruses to transfer the needed gene. Whatever organ needs the vector, is targeted by the vector. There are many different types of virus vectors. As it is with many scientific treatments, there are ethical issues with gene therapy. There is also the fact that whenever a foreign object enters the body, the body's natural response is to attack the intruder.

In the science world it is know that pharmaceutical manufacturing relies heavily upon biotechnology. Back in the day, insulin from the pancreas of pigs was used in human who had diabetes, but due to the lack of pigs to do this scientists used recombinant DNA technology to make E. Coli produce insulin, this is an early instance of using biotechnology is pharmaceuticals. Another example is the need for human growth hormones. They were originally obtained from the pituitary glands of dead people, but that proved to be ineffective because so much was needed, so recombinant DNA allowed E. Coli to produce the human growth hormones. So, the use of biotechnology in pharmaceuticals has and will continue to greatly benefit humans.

Forensics are the uses of sciences concerning the law and crime scenes. People who use forensics use DNA samples and other things associated at the scene of a crime to find out who the criminal was. Forensics use many different samples and factors to determine crimes, things such as soil samples, DNA, hair samples, drugs, poisons, finger prints, surrounding organisms in the crime scene and many, many other things. Most samples are taken to a lab and examined thoroughly using many different techniques. Some forensic techniques that have been used by groups such as the FBI have been discontinued due to lack of evidence proving their credibility.

Cancer can affect almost every part of the body. Cancer is diagnosed when rogue cells grow and divide out of control. They develop into a tissue mass called a tumor. Some tumors can become metastatic, meaning it can move to other parts of the body and infect those as well. Benign tumors are non cancerous and stay in one spot, although they can become malignant. Malignant tumors are cancerous. Cancer can affect an array of different organisms. Cancer accounts for 13% of deaths around the world. Anybody of any race or age can get cancer, although the risk increases with age. Scientists believe the risk for cancer has always been high, but earlier people had shorter life spans, so cancer did not show up too often.

Cancer develops due to many different factors, carcinogens (cancer causing agents in the environment), radiation, and cigarette smoke (as well as second hand smoke that has carcinogens). Cancer can also develop from environmental factors. Symptoms of cancer can include, cough, tumor, bleeding, headaches, and other symptoms associated with the common cold. Cancer is usually recognized through screenings, but is not diagnosed this way. If some is thought to have cancer many medical test are used to determine the type and severity, this includes blood tests, x-rays and biopsies.

Treatment of cancer is difficult. Depending on when the cancer is detected surgery and treatment can be tough. Cancer can sometimes be removed completely through surgery, other times chemotherapy and other methods including antibiotics are used to rid the body of the invasive cells. Chemotherapy is one treatment that is often used, but it has some serious side effects. Patients who use chemotherapy are likely to have permanent damage to tissue and other parts of the body.

A cure for cancer is needed just as much as a cure for AIDS. Although an actual cure for cancer may never come to be because cancer affects various parts of the body, cures or treatments for different types may soon come to light. Cancer has a big emotional factor on people who have suffered from the disease or have family who has had the disease. Support groups are offered to people who have dealt with cancer. Below is a picture of lung cancer in an x-ray, which is caused by a series of mutations.

This question appears regularly in the question file, so let's take a shot at it.

In nature, living things evolve through changes in their DNA. In an animal like a chicken, DNA from a male sperm cell and a female ovum meet and combine to form a zygote -- the first cell of a new baby chicken. This first cell divides innumerable times to form all of the cells of the complete animal. In any animal, every cell contains exactly the same DNA, and that DNA comes from the zygote.

Chickens evolved from non-chickens through small changes caused by the mixing of male and female DNA or by mutations to the DNA that produced the zygote. These changes and mutations only have an effect at the point where a new zygote is created. That is, two non-chickens mated and the DNA in their new zygote contained the mutation(s) that produced the first true chicken. That one zygote cell divided to produce the first true chicken.

Prior to that first true chicken zygote, there were only non-chickens. The zygote cell is the only place where DNA mutations could produce a new animal, and the zygote cell is housed in the chicken's egg. So, developing DNA and cells in the egg are what must have come first.

Structurally, DNA is a strand-like material made up of building blocks called base pairs. The arrangement of these base pairs is identical in every cell of our body. This means that all the DNA in our cells are identical to each other.

And this arrangement of base pairs is also unique for each and every individual. The uniqueness of the DNA and its identical arrangement in the cells of a given individual makes it possible to identify someone using his or her DNA.

The DNA test is nothing but analyzing and establishing a record of the DNA of an individual. This is done in specialized DNA labs using highly sophisticated technology.

The record of the DNA of an individual will be the same no matter how many times DNA is tested and no matter what sample is used to extract the DNA out. Comparing and matching the records of analysis of two DNA samples thus allows an infallible method of identifying someone.

Because our DNA is something we inherit from our parents, our DNA will have certain similarities which are comparable to that of our parents' DNA. Our grandparents' DNA which will be passed onto us from our parents will also have some similarities to our DNA. In this way our relations and our ancestors can be determined or traced. This is what some of the DNA testing laboratories use when they trace our family tree. This is also the principle applied when DNA is tested to establish paternity.

So, in short, the DNA test is a test which can determine the individual identity of a person with an extremely high degree of accuracy.

According to the foreign media reports, Newcastle University researchers have successfully created the first human mixed-breed animal embryo or known as cytoplasmic hybrids or cybrids.

These are procedures on how human DNA is inserting into the cow egg cell from which its nucleus has been removed.

In this research, the researchers extracted DNA from the human skin cell before inserting into a hollowed-out cow egg derived from a cow ovary. All the genetic and species properties of this egg have been eliminated, meaning that the cow's nucleus DNA was being removed so that it has no longer a cow as explained by Dr. Minger. After 4 days of its growth in the laboratory, researchers eventually obtained the so-called human-animal hybrid embryo. An electric shock then induced this hybrid embryo to grow.

It is said that this embryo has a characterization of 99.9% human and 0.1% other animal after being grown for 3 days until it had 32 cells. The embryos were continue to grow for another 6 days before extracting stem cells out from them which could be used to investigate debilitating and untreated diseases such as Alzheimer's, cystic fibrosis, Parkinson's, Lou Gehrig's, Huntington's and motor neuron diseases. The researchers claimed that the research is due to the scarcity of human eggs and they further insisted that the embryos would not be planted into the woman.

In accordance to the current regulation in Britain, the hybrid embryos have to be destroyed after 14 days.

These embryos have a characteristic of 99.9% human and 0.1% animal.

The half-human-animal hybrid embryo viewed under the microscope.

These are embryos first cloned by the Newcastle University team. These are also the early embryos that will then use to yield stem cells

The diagram shows how the human cybrid is created.

On March 25, the public came to realize the issue of human-animal hybrid embryo in a lecture first presented in Tel Aviv. According to the Newcastle University which is situated in the northern part of the United Kingdom, this study has neither released extensively to the public nor being held for an external examination or peer review. A former head of the Medical Research Council, Colin Blakemore said, "The creation of hybrid embryos is not illegal and researchers in Newcastle and London were granted provisional license for such research in January, after extensive consultation by the HFEA...This research is at a very early stage and no results have been peer-reviewed or published." While being interviewed by the French media, a spokesman from the University of Newcastle said, "The University hasn't reached the final confirmation". The study result is said to be released within a few months later.

A paper on human-hybrid embryo was first presented in Tel Aviv on March 25.

This research has gained the permission from the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA) in January in order to create the embryos used for untreatable conditions. The British government also approved this research from a scientific point of view. The Liberal Democrat MP, Evan Harris, who led a campaign to ensure that research on human-animal hybrids was not banned by the parliament said, "Creating these sort of cytoplasmic hybrid embryos was deemed legal and legitimate under the 1990 HFEA Act and the 2001 Therapeutic Cloning Regulations by both the HFEA and by the science select committee, and was approved on that basis by the HFEA after a public consultation and after approval by a further unanimous select committee report. Therefore it is wrong to say that this is pre-empting parliamentary debate or a vote on the new legislation in this area-the statutory framework is being updated."

Nevertheless, this research has received condemnation from Catholic bishops as they said that this research has against the human rights, human dignity and human life. The leader of Catholics in Scotland, Cardinal Keith O'Brien used his Easter Sunday sermon to denounce this research as "Frankenstein proportion." The idea of the Catholic objection towards this research is that the notion of inserting human and animal DNA in the similar entity and also to the idea of creating what the researchers regard as a life for the purposes of research to which a life that will then be destroyed. Simultaneously, this research has received opposition from some ethnic groups and churches. The objection also came from the campaign group Comment on Reproductive Ethics, Josephine Quintavalle who said, "It is appalling that the government has bowed to pressure from the random collection of self-interested scientists and change its prohibitive stance."

It is sadly to learn that most British have agreed on this project of "true hybrids" created by the so-called "human chimeras", where human cells are injected into animal embryos. Shall we allow this to happen? Shall we receive something like a part of human and a part of animal? It seems like an odd and disgusting feeling to receive this type of embryos, isn't it?
This human-animal chimera which was named after a monster in Greek mythology that had a lion's head, goat's body, and serpent's tail has undoubtedly risen up people fear and concern. I keep on asking, "Would this creation still qualify as a HUMAN?" Can you accept this half-human and half-animal creation? It is inhuman to take out human DNA and then put into a host animal egg.

Hereditary, or the genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring, determines personality to a certain extent. Hereditary characteristics manifest at birth such as hair and eye color, skin color and body type. Hereditary also includes aptitude or the capacity to learn a skill or inclination for a particular body of knowledge. It establishes the limits of one's personality traits that can be developed. This aptitude creates the desire for a person to learn something. For instance, the son of a sports hero like a boxer superstar is expected to inherit the genes of his father. His capacity for growth in the boxing arena is immense because he is born with the ability. Or, take the case of a daughter of a writer. Obviously, with her genetic predisposition to write she will be more inclined to study or learn writing compared to other endeavors such as sports.

Behavioral geneticists, Dr. David Reiss and colleagues from George Washington University, conducted a thorough and long-term study on the effects of genetics to a person's personality. The result of their study revealed that “it seems that genetic influences are largely responsible for how "adjusted" kids are: how well they do in school, how they get along with their peers, whether they engage in dangerous or delinquent behavior”.

Behavioral geneticists believe that the genes do not act as the exact blueprints that determine every detail of our personality and behavior; rather, they think that heredity or these genes reveal through a person's actual interactions with the environment. The genetic make-up of a person brings out particular reactions to things and people which in turn determine the person's personality.

To further explain this, it is important to know how DNA works. The DNA of a person is responsible for a certain kind of nervous system such as one that is alarmed at new situations, one that wants new sensations and one that is slow to react. In different situations, children react according to the one that would be most suitable for their genotype or genetic endowment. The ability to choose reactions though increases as a person grows older.

Unfortunately, a lot of those people who dreamt of the possibilities in the past have not lived to see the reality. Therein lies what is a major part of the problem, our own mortality.

While a few may want death to come unexpectedly and without warning at any time in their lives, or trust in their own deity of choice, perhaps helping ourselves to not only extend life, but make death an option, would be preferable to inevitability.

Realizing that any problem today, including death, could be solved through nanotechnology, one would think it would be the utmost priority. Unfortunately, some Luddite type thinking, fear mongering, ignorance, and religious absolutism have delayed or even stopped technological progress in some areas of the globe.

Fortunately, this is not the case with the United States and other developed countries, at least when it comes to nanotechnology or technology on the scale of a billionth of a meter. At the atomic and molecular scale, however, many difficulties occur.

While Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA), or Nature's nanotechnology, has proven to be useful for evolution over millennia, adapting it for use in recently developed nanotechnology has proven difficult, time-consuming, and expensive.

Helping to solve this problem is John Chaput and his research team at the Biodesign Institute of Arizona State University, who have now created a more flexible alternative: Glycerol Nucleic Acid (GNA). The advantages include faster mirror image replication, less expense, greater connectivity, and a higher heat tolerance. While still fairly new, the Journal of the American Chemical Society claims the team has been the first to make self-assembled nanostructures with GNA.

With these and many other tools currently available and on the horizon, the only problems left in the future seem to be those we create. Perhaps with enough foresight and responsibility, we will succeed in becoming more than human.

The two groups came together again around 40,000 years ago and the population began a miraculous.recovery before expanding out of Africa to engulf the entire globe. Many archaeologists believe this era heralded the beginning of fully modern human behavior, including abstract thought and complex spoken language. The big surprise was the length of time the populations were separate, believed to be the longest separation in our history.

The genetic study that arrived at these conclusions was conducted by the Genographic Project, a collaboration between National Geographic and IBM which started in 2005, and published in the American Journal of Human Genetics on April 24, 2008. The study concluded that these disparate groups were probably forced apart by the severe drought conditions and as the droughts subsided, allowed the groups to came together again, before man began his expansion out of Africa to populate the globe.

According to National Geographic, "The Genographic Project is a five-year research partnership led by National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence Dr. Spencer Wells. Dr. Wells and a team of renowned international scientists and IBM researchers, are using cutting-edge genetic and computational technologies to analyze historical patterns in DNA from participants around the world to better understand our human genetic roots. The three components of the project are: to gather field research data in collaboration with indigenous and traditional peoples around the world; to invite the general public to join the project by purchasing a Genographic Project Public Participation Kit; and to use proceeds from Genographic Public Participation Kit sales to further field research and the Genographic Legacy Fund which in turn supports indigenous conservation and revitalization projects. The Project is anonymous, non-medical, non-political, non-profit and non-commercial and all results will be placed in the public domain following scientific peer publication."

Amazingly, this information is locked within the human DNA and reveals human history through the ages, ie.the study of anthropology using genetics. Specifically, this study used the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of the Khoi and San people in South Africa. The mtDNA is passed solely from mothers to offspring, never from fathers.

The original pioneering research using mtDNA was the 1980 study by Wesley Brown, then at the University of California at Berkeley, which traced modern humans to a single "mitochondrial Eve," who lived in Africa between what the researchers estimated as between 140,000 and 290,000 years ago. Brown's study found unexpectedly small differences among the mtDNA, signifying a relatively recent origin for modern humans. Brown's data suggested it would take 180,000 to 360,000 years to produce today's diversity starting from a single Eve.

Also, intercalators can be used to enhance the rate of charge transfer which can undergo reduction-oxidation reaction at much more lower potential than guanine. Hence, this help in increasing the amount of charge transfer through DNA which increases the sensitivity of DNA to charge transfer.

Intercalator can be used in two ways:

1. Only one intercalator can be used, which act as donor for the charge
2. Even intercalators can be used in combination, such that one acts as charge donor while the other acts as the charge acceptor

So, now I think all readers must have got some idea about the charge transfer through DNA. But since this topic is very controversial so I would like to suggest that don't jump to conclusions just by reading this topic. But, use this topic in helping you to develop exact concept behind charge transfer through DNA. Since, this is just my viewpoint and not an experimentally proved fact.