Acid Rain occurs when Chemicals get into the air. This could happen through a variety of ways, including Cars and other motor vehicles, or from chimneys that are burning coal. These chemicals then come together with droplets of water vapor from clouds. These droplets of contaminated water then come down to Earth as acidic precipitation - snow, hail, rain, or sleet. When this falls to the Earth, it can do many things, which you will find in the next paragraph. The average pH, or acidity, of clean rainwater is 5.6, which is just a little bit more acidic than normal, which is 7. Acid Rain is anything below that. According to the EPA, the Environmental Protection Agency, the most acidic rainfall in the US is about 4.3. Thankfully, according to the NADP, the pH of precipitation near Reno is in the high 5.0's and low 6.0's.

Acid Rain is causing many problems. It affects both biotic and abiotic factors. One problem is that it erodes, or digs into, certain materials that we use to build, and also natural materials such as rocks. This makes it so that if we see a beautiful stone monument today, or a huge skyscraper that reaches far as the eye can see, we might not see either in a few years. All that would be left would be small bits of rubble, or lumps of stone where these wonders of human technology once stood. It also affects the water in lakes, rivers and streams of our planet. It turns the water acidic, therefore making it unhealthy for other organisms. That brings us to the biotic factors. If you were a deer, and you had only one stream to drink out of, what would you do if your stream became acidized? You wouldn't be able to do anything, so you would just have to drink the acidic water. Besides, it can't be that bad, right? Wrong. After a few drinks, the acid will slowly kill you. But the death of one deer wouldn't be too bad, right? Again, wrong. Deer tend to travel together, so first of all, there would be the death of a large group. But then, that death chain starts an even bigger chain: The death of the food chain. If all the deer disappeared, what would the wolves eat? They would die, or eat loads of rabbits. And then all the rabbits would be gone, leaving nothing for other predators. This would go on and on, until only Herbivores were on Earth. Then, even they would die, as acid rain also acidizes the water that plants drink. So, as you can see, Acid Rain is a huge problem.

You were just presented with many dire problems caused by Acid Rain, but fear not: There are many ways to protect ourselves, and to reduce Acid Rain. Did you know that to fully get rid of all air pollution; we would have to reduce the amount of emissions, pollutants spilled into the air knowingly, by 12 million tons? That's the amount of 6 million elephants put together! How could we ever achieve that goal? Well, first of all, we have a certain item called a scrubber. A scrubber is put inside a smoke stack, or chimney, to clean the smoke that comes out of it, therefore reducing the amount of harmful air pollution that comes out of the chimney. Then, there is a certain restriction on US cars built in America. They must all have a little device called a catalytic converter. This removes 96% of carbon monoxide, an air pollutant, and hydro carbons, from the exhaust of the car. Over seas, in Sweden and Germany, they are using Lime to neutralize, or De-acidize, their lakes. And in Japan, they have required all power plants to reduce Nitrogen Oxide by 75%. And you, at home, can help too. Use cars and other motor vehicles less, and since creating electricity causes pollution, conserve the amount of energy you use at home and at work. This will also help lower your power bills!

So, there you have it: Acid Rain is a terrible thing whose results have already affected our culture, but if we try hard enough, then we can help to stop it. The way we stop it, whether by carpooling or air-drying your clothes, it doesn't really matter: WE just have to take part. Then, hopefully, the A)'s will explain your future.

To observe the properties of acids

Materials

• samples of acids metals,
• red and blue litmus paper,
• universal indicator,
• NaOH,
• and well plates

Procedure

Using the chart below test each acid against the metals, indicators, and base listed in the left hand column. Follow any additional directions indicated in boxes.

Analysis

What type of reaction can occur between a metal and an acid?

Single replacement reactions.

List the combinations of metals and acids that reacted with each other. How could you tell there was a reaction?

Zinc and magnesium react with all of the acids. Cu did not react with any of the acids. I could tell there was a reaction because the substance bubbled and gave off gas.

Choose one of the reactions from #2 and write a balanced equation for it.

Mg + 2HClMgC2 + H2

What happened to the pH value when NaOH was added to each acid?

The pH increases to make the acid closer to neutrality.

Conclusion

Acids do not reacted well with copper, but do react well with metals such as magnesium or zinc. When a base is added to an acid, the acid is neutralized and becomes more basic.

There are many industries and manmade processes that cause acid rain. A high amount of Sulfur dioxide comes from fossil fuel combustion. This comes from manmade processes such as driving a car, driving a boat, running a power plant or factory, and flying airplanes. Nitrogen compounds also come from these processes.

Natural processes cause acid rain too. A major natural contributor to acid rain is volcanic eruptions. Volcanoes cause a lot of chemicals in gases to escape into the atmosphere. There are also biological processes around the whole planet that create harmful chemicals.

There are ways to prevent and neutralize acid rain. Coal-burning power plants use flue gas desulfurization (FGD) to neutralize and collect the sulfur dioxide leaving the plant. The FGDs use fans to push the gases into a tower where a limestone mixture is injected. The calcium carbonate in the limestone then combines with the sulfur dioxide to create calcium sulfate, a neutral substance. This substance is then removed from the FGD and is often sold. This is done in power plants to counteract the effects of acid rain.

To find out if red cabbage is a good and effective indicator by testing household substances.

Hypothesis

 

he red cabbage will work as an indicator but will not give consistent results.

Equipment/Materials

1. water
2. coffee
3. milk
4. apple juice
5. blast™ dish washing concentrate
6. Windex™ window cleaner
7. large bowl
8. glass cup
9. red cabbage extract
10. vinegar
11. cinnamon
12. bi-carb
13. tablespoon
14. measuring cup
15. small bowl

Variables

Independent:

• Household substance

Dependent:

• Color of red cabbage extract

Controlled:

1. Cabbage extract: should be the same concentration, temperature and age
2. Equipment: should be cleaned after use to stop other chemicals interfering
3. Amount of chemical: there should be the same amount of extract and the same amount of household chemicals in each test
4. Repeat trials: should contain the exact same chemicals, same brand, age and temperature
5. The same or very similar measuring equipment and containers should be used

Procedure

1. Mix equal parts red cabbage extract and water in a large bowl
2. Put 1 cup of the red cabbage solution into a small bowl
3. Measure 1 tablespoon of water (used as a control) and put it into the small bowl with the red cabbage solution
4. Mix the water and red cabbage extract together and then pour into a glass cup
5. Mix the solution again
6. Record the changes and clean equipment
7. Get another cup of the red cabbage solution and put it into the same, cleaned, small bowl
8. Put 1 tablespoon of a house hold substance into the small bowl and mix. (if the household substance is a solid, mix it with 25% water before putting it in the small bowl so that it will dissolve better in the red cabbage solution)
9. Pour the contents of the small bowl into the cleaned glass cup and give a little mix
10. Record the results and clean equipment again
11. Repeat steps 7 to 10
12. Repeat steps 7 to 11 but use a different household substance every time. Repeat until there are no household substances left or you run out of red cabbage solution.
13. Make a report showing the results

Results

The results for each household ingredient are listed below:

Discussion

The experiment was made fair by keeping the working environment consistent between each test. The equipment was always cleaned after a chemical was used so that the chemicals would not react together and affect the colour of the mixture. There was only 1 batch of cabbage extract made so there was no difference between tests. There were repeat trials of each test to make sure that the result was consistent. Most of the time the test was only repeated a few times but when strange results occurred like in the windex™ the test was repeated several times to make sure that the chemicals were well mixed and there were no interferences. The same amount of chemicals was used each time, this made sure that the cabbage and chemicals had the same amount of power to react each time.

There was not much need for safety precautions as it was a fairly safe experiment. The gas was always being watched and the saucepan had its handle facing away. The chemicals used were not extremely toxic and the chemicals were always away from the flame used to heat the red cabbage.

The experiment could have been improved if there were better equipment to record information. It would have been better to take pictures with a camera then what it was to use the webcam. If there were more equipment to keep samples of the chemical changes it would be easier see what had happened and when it came to recording the information in this report the colors would still be there to refer back to.

Conclusion: Red cabbage is a bad indicator. It does not compete enough with other chemicals that are mixed with it for color. It works OK with dilute chemicals but does not work well at all with concentrated chemicals. Also chemicals with a lot of color, like coffee, stain the red cabbage to much for a good change in the red cabbage/household ingredient mixture. Since only the Windex™ went green it is likely that the reaction was more like blood and oxygen where the change of color is not caused by pH. It would be more effective and conclusive if a commercial indicator was used rather then the red cabbage.

Making Red Cabbage

 

When the diluted cabbage extract was mixed with the vinegar the mixture went a reddish color. The color was almost the same as the red cabbages normal color so the change was very small but when the red cabbage was put with the ammonia the mixture went a bluish color. It was a milky blue but it was still blue. The milky color was strange but it was probable because of the red cabbage's natural color.

The problem of the lab is to determine which type of stone would be the best building material for a statue. The types of stones tested were red sandstone, granite, pea stone, and limestone.

Hypothesis

If granite is the best stone then the pH of the stone will increase because the vinegar will become less acidic when the stone gets dissolved.

Experimental Design

Identification of Variables:

The independent variable in the lab were the four types of stone. The four types of stone were red sandstone, granite, pea stone, and limestone. The dependent variable of the experiment was the acidity of the vinegar on the pH scale. The control was to have the stones in water. The control was used as a standard of comparison to compare the acidity of the stones to the stones in vinegar. Constants in the lab were the amount of rocks, the amount of water, the amount of vinegar, to use the same pH scale, and to use the same type of litmus paper.

Materials:

• Balance
• Containers
• PH Paper
• Graduated Cylinder
• Water
• Vinegar
• Limestone
• Red Sandstone
• Granite
• Pea Stone

Procedure:

1. Get all materials
2. Measure out 20 ml of water for the four containers for the control
3. Put 10 g of each stone in the four containers with the water and record the pH in the data table.
4. Measure the pH of the water with the stones in the container
5. Get four more containers and fill them with 20 ml of vinegar
6. Put 10 g of each stone in the four containers with the vinegar
7. Take the pH of the vinegar with the stones in the vinegar and record the pH in the data table
8. Leave the containers over night and find the pH of the vinegar and water for each stone and record the pH in the data table

Data Presentation:

Written Results:

The initial pH for all of the stones in the control was a pH of 7. The final pH for all of the stones in the control was 7, which made the change of pH for each stone zero. The initial pH for the stones in the vinegar was 2. The final pH for the red sandstone was 4 making a change of 2. The final pH for granite was 4, which made the change of pH 2. Pea stones final pH was 5. The total change of pH for pea stone was 3. The final pH for limestone was 6 and that made the change of pH 4 for limestone.

Conclusion

The problem of the lab was the investigate the effect of acid rain on various building materials in order to make a recommendation to the town council as to the best material to use for a statue. The hypothesis of the lab was if granite were the best stone then the pH would increase because the vinegar will become less acidic if the stone gets dissolved. The data in the lab suggests that the hypothesis was incorrect. Granites initial pH was 2 and the final pH was 4. The change of pH was 2. The stone that increased the most was limestone. Limestone had an initial pH of 2 and a final of 6. The change of pH was 4 and limestone was the least acidic.

Validity:

The lab could have had a few errors. The first error could have been that the same amounts of stone were not in the containers. This could have meant that there would have been more stone to dissolve. The second error could have been that there was not the same amount of liquid in the containers. There could have been more vinegar in one of the containers that could have made the stone dissolve quicker. The third error could have been that the pH scale was read wrong.

Like all other food, the digestion of a turkey sandwich starts in the mouth. The teeth break down the food in to small pieces. The saliva from the salivary glands contains the enzyme amylase which breaks down carbohydrates to some extent and it also eases the passage of food through the esophagus, the tube which takes the food down to the stomach.

In the stomach, the food is churned in the presence of pepsin which breaks down proteins. Then the food is pushed to the duodenum, where all the enzymes and digestive fluids from the pancreas and the liver are mixed with churned food thus helping to break it down. The small intestine then absorbs the nutrients and sends the nutrient-free food to the large intestine. In the large intestine, the water is absorbed and the solid waste is eliminated from the body through the rectum.

Thus we see that the process of digestion is very long and complicated and that the food we eat goes down several steps before we get energy from it. The process of digestion breaks carbohydrates down to glucose, proteins down to amino acids, fats down to fatty acids and glycerol, thus releasing ATP. Vitamins and minerals are utilized for the growth and repair of the body. We start chemical and mechanical digestion as soon as the food enters the mouth. But who thinks of all this while taking the juicy bite of that turkey sandwich with mayonnaise dripping from its sides?

Different acids react to form different salts:

Hydrochloric Acid ? Chloride

Sulphuric Acid ? Sulphate

Nitric Acid ? Nitrate

The general equation for the reaction of a Metal Carbonate with Acid is

“Metal Carbonate + Acid ? Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water”

Example

Copper Carbonate + Sulphuric Acid ? Copper Sulphate + Carbon Dioxide + Water

Zinc Carbonate + Hydrochloric Acid ? Zinc Chloride + Carbon Dioxide + Water

Potassium Chloride + Nitric Acid ? Potassium Nitrate + Carbon Dioxide + Water

Etc.

Although numerous uneducated people might think that acid-based fertilizers help the plants, we believe it might actually hurt them. If we analyze the case, acid based fertilizers have been known to contaminate the waters. Thus acid rain is produced causing plants and crops to be ruined and of course, polluting the water more. There are many types of fertilizers and brands that promise to be good for the environment and others that admit to have acids in them. Nevertheless, groups that are concerned about the ecology and preservation of water have vast reasons to question these fertilizers.