1. Buy Fair Trade Products

   >By choosing Fair Trade products you are doing your bit to ensure that producers in developing countries are getting paid a fair price for their goods. You empower them to live with dignity beyond subsistance and exploitation. Paying a fair price for their work enables them to put food on the table for their families, send their children to school and plan for their futures.
   
   Check out World of Good, Ganesha and Tribes & Nations for Fair Trade goodies!
   
   

2. Let your Elected Representatives know You Care

   Write to your elected officials and let them know that making poverty history is important to you - whether it be in other countries or in your own. Remind your Representatives at all levels of Government that Poverty is an issue they need to address.
   

3. Find out where you are on the Global Rich List

   Think you don't have enough to spare anything for those less fortunate than you? Put your income in perspective with the Global Rich List. Cultivate a sense of abundance and gratitude and you may be surprised how much you can find to share with those in need - whether it be time, money, skills or possessions.
   
   

4. Volunteer

   Volunteer in your own community - or check out the UN Online Volunteering Service. They connect development organisations and volunteers over the internet. They have assignments ranging from the translation of documents to creating audio files for online ESL courses to sourcing donations of used computers.
   
   

5. Take a Vacation

   Need a break? Why not make it a worthwhile one and take a volunteer vacation? You'll get to see the world, connect with some wonderful people - and make a positive contribution. Take a look at Global Volunteers, Global Vision International and IVPA (International Volunteer Programs Association).
   

The word orphan is a Greek derivation meaning a child who has lost both parents through death. The American Judicial System defines an orphan as a person who is without parents and has been abandoned from all familial associations.

Many prominent people were orphans: Johann Sebastian Bach was orphaned at the age of 10, but had other relatives. George Washington Carver was orphaned as an infant but was adopted by a family who were not his relatives. Herbert Hoover, orphaned at the age of 10, had other family. Percy Spencer (inventor of the microwave), who was orphaned at age 3, had other relatives. Leo Tolstoy, orphaned at age 9, also had relatives. Society labeled them as orphans because they had lost parents, but they all had relatives to rely on with the exception of George Washington Carver who was adopted by an unrelated married couple. They overcame the societal derogative term orphan in times of difficulty and challenge.

Society in the United States began to realize that there was a need to do something with the growing population of unclaimed children in the 19th century, whereas England and Europe had a large population of unwanted children living on the streets beginning in the 18th century. With no living relatives to care for these children, they were sent to almshouses, which were first established in Britain in the 10th century. They offered charitable housing for the poor, widows, and orphans. In Europe, children with adults housed in such facilities were often expected to work in some type of manual labor that was accompanied by physical abuse. Before the United States implemented the Social Security Program in the 1930s, there was no protection or labor employment law. Poverty, indigence, and orphaned were derogatory labels for anyone who did not have the means to take care of themselves. Children mostly became orphans from being born out of wedlock or women dying in childbirth. The Civil War left numerous children without relatives and family.

In the 18th century many abandoned children lived on the streets in New York. Local governments established institutions known as orphanages for many street children during this time. In 1850, New York had 27 orphanages operated by the government and private finances. The population of abandoned children grew in the New York area to over 10,000 and the government needed to find solutions for them. They attempted to introduce the idea of adoption to new parents, but couples are more open now to this concept than they were in the 1800s. Because it was not a suitable arrangement at that time for parents to adopt abandoned children, New York City decided to ship them to families on farms in the Midwest and they were given train tickets to Texas, Arkansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma on trains which became known as the Orphan Trains. Several children were adopted by farmers.

Another increase in orphans occurred during and after World War I. The Great Depression left children on the doorsteps of churches by families who could not care for or feed them. They were housed in orphanages until their parents had the means to take them back and care for them. This struggle introduced social welfare and government subsidy programs. Society changed their understanding of orphans and abandoned children in the 1960s, and while there are still some orphanages in operation today in the United States, there is a change from housing children in them to placing children with families in foster care and group housing programs. Foster care programs are still in effect today and there are programs to help children find relatives and discover where their original parents are residing.

Abandoned and unclaimed children in the United States have better opportunities and living conditions than their predecessors. In 2006, the population of orphans in the United States was 302, 841 and 75,757 were under the age of 18, while 20, 776 were under the age of 5. The death rate of orphans in the United States in 2006 was less than 14.

In other countries of the world, however, orphans have greater risk of survival than any preceding generation. They are more numerous and concentrated in specific areas of the world because plagues and diseases killed their parents and family members. HIV/AIDS is the major contributor to large populations of orphans in the Sub-Sahara Region of Africa, the geographical area south of the Sahara Desert. The countries in this region are the poorest in the world.

In 2006, an estimated 15 million children worldwide under the age of 18 have lost one or both parents to this horrible disease (Orphans and HIV). Being left with no supportive relatives or family the orphans must fight for survival with the added stigma of HIV/AIDS. Orphans in this world are affected by many difficult and desperate situations as indicated in Figure 1 (Global Action for Children and My Orphanages.org).

The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) monitors and tracks the number of orphans worldwide. UNICEF projects that the number of orphans in Sub-Saharan Africa (countries south of the Sahara Desert) will be 16 million by 2010. Zimbabwe and Botswana sharing a border in southern Africa will have the greatest increase of 77% and 76% respectively.

In 2006, Nigeria had the largest population (in the millions) of orphans. Figure 2 illustrates the population of orphans produced because of the HIV/AIDS disease.

Other conditions produce orphans in the world. Figure 3 shows orphan populations in countries as the result of malnutrition, wars, and parents who give up their children to social service organizations as some of the reasons.

Especially in the Sub-Sahara Region of Africa in extreme poverty areas basic necessities of clean water and food are reported. Medical care, nutrition, and education are greatly needed as well.

There are some organizations available to serve this vast population of orphans. However, the need exceeds the capabilities and number of these organizations. My Orphanages Organization tracks the names, locations, and population of children being served through orphanages in the world. The number of orphanages is insufficient to meet the vast population of orphans in high-risk regions. Figure 4 shows orphanages in countries with large populations of orphans as the result of HIV/AIDS. Notice that the number of children in these orphanages is much less than the orphans in their respective country as indicated in Figure 2. The Democratic Republic of Congo has an estimated 770,000 orphans. Myorphanage.org does not have listings for any orphanages in that country.

In summary, the number of orphans has increased since the 1900's. Far more calamitous situations exist in the world, which contributes to the orphan population such as children who are orphaned when diseases such as HIV/AIDS take the lives of their parents and relatives. Orphans in the Sub-Sahara countries are greatly affected by government involvement, non-involvement, conflict, instability, societal-educational favor or rejection, and family unit responsibilities of the father or head of household. The burden of taking care of orphans in these countries is on the women who have lost their husbands or are unmarried. The stigma of HIV/AIDS diminishes the orphans' chances of being accepted in society. Unmet basic needs of sanitation, clean water, and food decrease the survival rate of children who become orphaned. Orphans and women are easily exploited when left to take care of themselves.

While the United States, Europe and other developed countries continue to successfully provide better opportunities and living conditions for abandoned and orphaned children, it is estimated by 2010 there will be 15.7 million vulnerable children in the Sub-Sahara countries. This is a different world for the orphan, a world that needs to recognize that their plight is greater now than ever before.

To commence, several foundations of penury presently exist, and a majority of such initiations are comparatively fundamental. A noticeable quantity of specialists regarding this field propose, for instance, that such frequent obstacles as congestion of humanity, joblessness, and a deficiency of appropriate nourishment. However, rudimentary causes such as those listed above are rather obstinate and will not be eradicated effortlessly, if at all. In numerous scenarios, the varied outcomes of indigence eventually are exhibited as further sources of impoverishment, thus driving the deprived to remain in such a condition. The primary factors of poverty are elaborated below, as are voluminous specific examples.

Overpopulation

 

 

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The condition in which immense quantities of people in a limited area possess insufficient resources and scope, commonly known as overpopulation, is directly related to indigence. It is capable of  ensuing from elevated population density (the proportion of residents to their inhabited territory, and is often articulated utilizing a measure of persons per square mile or kilometer) or from depletion concerning the quantity of accessible resources, or even from both circumstances as well. Disproportionately raised population densities position an immense burden on available provisions attainable. Merely a restricted, specified number of people can be sustained on a provided segment of earth, and such capacity is dependent upon the extent of the nourishment and obtainable supplies. Within nations comprising inhabitants establishing an appropriate living via cultivation, gardening, herding, hunting, and gathering, even elongated portions of land are efficient only in maintaining a relatively minute amount of residents, as such labor-intensive subsistence practices are scarcely beneficial, producing a diminutive aggregate of rations.   

Concerning industrialized, established countries such as the United States, Japan, and the nations that comprise the western segment of Europe, overpopulation is generally not regarded as a principal foundation for penury. These countries generate bountiful quantities of food through means of automated or mechanized procedures and instruments; this form of farming is contingent upon the utilization of commercial enrichers (fertilizers), agrarian mechanisms, and extensive irrigation. This particular method of production is capable of furnishing the residents of a majority of developed countries with sufficient sources of nourishment.

A nation's combination of population concentration and the overall sustenance productivity are significant factors in determining its degree of poverty.  For instance, Bangladesh exhibits one of the most immense population densities within the entire planet (as of recently, it has augmented once again, at 2,910 persons per square mile). A considerable preponderance of the residents of Bangladesh are frequently occupied in minimal-yielding corporeal agriculture, which supplements the country’s exceedingly intensified level of deprivation. Several of the minuter countries located amidst western Europe, such as Belgium and The Netherlands, have relatively sizable population densities as well. However, such locations apply and perform mechanized farming and are concerned with technologically sophisticated  manufacturing; therefore, such regions demonstrate substantial standards of routine.

Analyzing a contradictory scenario, numerous countries located within the Sub-Saharan Africa region possess populace densities of beneath 80 persons per square mile (30 persons per square kilometer). Many people in these countries practice manual subsistence farming; these countries also have infertile land and lack the economic resources and technology to boost productivity. As a calamitous consequence, the nations that comprise this particular zone are extremely impoverished. Contrastingly, the United States boasts both a reasonably manageable population density and plentiful agricultural output, and, as a result, it is among the Earth’s most prosperous nations.  

Within a majority of emerging, unindustrialized countries, increased birth rates are a significant contributing factor to overpopulation as well. Because they are beneficial providers of additional labor (such as being farmworkers) and income, children are often considered a significant asset. The essence of sizable families is traditionally sanctioned according to the cultural standards of a habitual rural society. Additionally, the administrations of third-world nations typically bequeath either insufficient or no assistance, pecuniary or governmental, for domestic arrangements; even those who desire to maintain reasonably reduced families experience impediments carrying this out. Ergo, developing countries are inclined to display comparatively high percentages of inhabitant enlargement. 

Contrariwise, a multitude of developed countries bequeath considerable administrative and fiscal aid to fulfill the purpose of household preparation. Because only a particular, limited degree of aid is offered, people often restrict the quantity of persons within their family units. Customary norms in such nations frequently affirm the ideals of a slighter family capacity as well. Nevertheless, numerous industrialized countries recently demonstrating diminishing population levels have commenced experimentation utilizing incentives in order to enhance the national birth rate.  

Improper Governance

 

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If the governmental management of a particular location is considerably flawed, severe consequences, such as poverty, are capable of occurring. For instance, the absence of democracy, in several nations, is a mainstream, conventional basis for indigence. This is evidenced by scientific research that regards subsistence expectancy in relation to governance: the analyzation of the outcome indicated that people abiding under an inferior democracy customarily survive nine additional years compared to those subject to weak autocracies.  Other manners in which democracies are ordinarily superior to autocracies are present as well, according to the Carnegie Council: "The records when we look at social dimensions of development—access to drinking water, girls' literacy, health care—are even more starkly divergent. For example, in terms of life expectancy, poor democracies typically enjoy life expectancies that are nine years longer than poor autocracies. Opportunities of finishing secondary school are 40 percent higher. Infant mortality rates are 25 percent lower. Agricultural yields are about 25 percent higher, on average, in poor democracies than in poor autocracies—an important fact, given that 70 percent of the population in poor countries is often rural-based. Poor democracies don't spend any more on their health and education sectors as a percentage of GDP than do poor autocracies, nor do they get higher levels of foreign assistance. They don't run up higher levels of budget deficits. They simply manage the resources that they have more effectively."  

A further foundation for penury is reliant on the behavior of a nation's administration; its effectiveness significantly influences the conveyance of socioeconomic consequences for impoverished populations. One example of an ineffective administration is inadequate regulation of law, which is capable of discouraging investment and perpetuating impecuniousness. Inappropriate management of resource earnings may suggest that in preference to raising their nations beyond poverty, the revenues from activities such gold quarrying or petroleum manufacturing is capable of, in point of fact, initiating a resource curse. A government's miscarriage in affording critical infrastructure for satisfactory education and other services and facilities exacerbates penury as well. This drives the majority of the impecunious to be confined in a possibly endless recurring sequence of poverty. 

Global Distribution of Resources

A preponderance of experts concur that the vestige of colonialism accounts for much of the unequal distribution of resources within the global economy. In several evolving countries, the often burdensome, arduous difficulties of impoverishment are substantial and pervasive. In current decades a majority of these countries have attempted to enhance and progress their economic affairs utilizing industry and technology with fluctuating extents of accomplishment. A quantity of nations have become tolerably affluent, including Thailand, Malaysia, the Republic of Indonesia, Singapore, and South Korea. However, a number of developing nations suffer a paucity of accessible natural material and the comprehension and expertise attained from formal education and guidance. They also frequently are deficient in proper infrastructure provided by, for instance, transportation procedures and power-generating facilities. Since these components are compulsory for the advancement of industry and commerce, emerging countries generally are required to remain contingent upon exchanges with sophisticated countries for manufactured commodities, but they cannot fulfill the expense of much.

A quantity of societal examiners contend that moneyed developed countries such as China are persistent in practicing neocolonialism, which is  a  contemporary  manner of colonialism. The privileged circumstances of these nations is partially associated with a considerable extent on preferable transactions with the developing world. Developed countries have been able to obtain inexpensive natural resources by utilizing means of substandard regions located amidst Latin America, Asia, and Africa; such items include, among various others, oil for fuel and general powering, ores and minerals for generating enduring merchandise, and manufactured goods constructed by low-salary laborers within manufactories operated by multinational conglomerates. This activity is a principal contributor to the dependency of inferior countries while additionally failing to enhance their standards of living.

The concentration of prosperity and possessions owned exclusively by a few privileged groups and classes manifests economic inequality. For example, disparate distribution of land area within arcadian districts is capable of ensuing in unpropitious consequences. Research performed in the 1970s confirmed that those  possessing bountiful  territories do not utilize it completely. Ergo, landless peasants are enmeshed into merged labour in agricultural production in quite a few segments of the developing zones of the planet. Application of child labor, in several nations, prevails as of yet. Additionally, extreme poverty is more commonplace amongst landless bucolic ménages. Insufficiency of property frequently inhibits the opportunities of households in every frame of reference and transforms their routines into vicious, often inescapable circle. Pastoral households would not possess access to credit even in minute amounts, for instance, to commence afresh within life without merely obtaining territiory for collateral.

A municipal partiality exists regarding the provision of exoteric facilities and utilities. The economic viability of such services require a minimum economies of scale which often exists in densely populated and economically better off urban areas. Lack or inadequate access to transport systems, schools, clinics, electricity and water in rural areas plays a key role in the extent and depth of rural poverty. For example lack of proper access to transport systems limits the access of rural households to markets where they can sell part of their agricultural produce. People die or are disabled from curable diseases and injuries in the absence of rural health posts. Education is one of the most important factors in enhancing people’s earning capacity and employment opportunities. And yet, access to schools by rural households, especially the poor, is more limited.

High Standards of Living and Costs of Living

Because people in developed nations may have more wealth and resources than those in developing countries, their standard of living is also generally higher. Thus, people who have what would be considered adequate wealth and resources in developing countries may be considered poor in developed countries. People in the United States, for example, may expect to make, on average, about $30,000 each year. They also probably expect to rent an apartment or own a house with electricity and running water, to be able to afford to eat and dress well, and to receive quality health care. In addition, many people aspire to afford discretionary expenses—that is, purchases unessential to survival, such as cars, higher-priced foods, and entertainment.

In contrast, people in developing countries may consider themselves to be doing well if they have productive gardens, some livestock, and a house of thatch or mud-brick. In rural areas, people may be accustomed to not having plumbing, electricity, or formal health care. By the standards of developed countries, such living conditions are considered hallmarks of poverty.

Developed countries also tend to have a high cost of living. Even the most basic lifestyle in these countries, with few or no luxuries, can be relatively expensive. Most people in the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, western European nations, and other developed countries cannot obtain adequate food, clothing, and shelter without ample amounts of money. In some areas, even people with jobs that pay the legal minimum wage may not be able to cover their basic expenses. People who cannot find or maintain well-paying jobs often have no spare income for discretionary or emergency expenses, and many rely on government welfare payments to survive.

Inadequate Education and Employment

lliteracy and lack of education are common in poor countries. Governments of developing countries often cannot afford to provide for good public schools, especially in rural areas. Whereas virtually all children in industrialized countries have access to an education, only about 60 percent of children in sub-Saharan Africa even attend elementary school. Without education, most people cannot find income-generating work. Poor people also often forego schooling in order to concentrate on making a minimal living. In addition, developing countries tend to have few employment opportunities, especially for women. As a result, people may see little reason to go to school.

Even in developed countries, unemployment rates may be high. When people do not have work, they do not make any money; thus, high unemployment leads to high levels of poverty. Availability of employment also tends to fluctuate, creating periods of high joblessness. Countries such as Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Switzerland, and Luxembourg have managed at times to keep unemployment as low as 2 percent. Unemployment figures during the 1990s in the United States and most of Europe, on the other hand, ranged from about 5 percent to more than 20 percent. In countries with high populations, unemployment levels of only a few percentage points mean that millions of working-age people cannot find work and earn an adequate income. Because unemployment figures indicate only the number of people eligible to work who have no job but are seeking employment, such figures are not necessarily an accurate indicator of the number of people living in poverty. Other people may not be able to find enough work or may earn wages too low to support themselves.

Environmental Degradation

 

In many parts of the world, environmental degradation—the deterioration of the natural environment, including the atmosphere, bodies of water, soil, and forests—is an important cause of poverty. Environmental problems have led to shortages of food, clean water, materials for shelter, and other essential resources. As forests, land, air, and water are degraded, people who live directly off these natural resources suffer most from the effects. People in developed countries, on the other hand, have technologies and conveniences such as air and water filters, refined fuels, and industrially produced and stored foods to buffer themselves from the effects of environmental degradation.

Global environmental degradation may result from a variety of factors, including overpopulation and the resulting overuse of land and other resources. Intensive farming, for instance, depletes soil fertility, thus decreasing crop yields. Environmental degradation also results from pollution. Polluting industries include mining, power generation, and chemical production. Other major sources of pollution include automobiles and agricultural fertilizers.

In developing countries, deforestation has had particularly devastating environmental effects. Many rural people, particularly in tropical regions, depend on forests as a source of food and other resources, and deforestation damages or eliminates these supplies. Forests also absorb many pollutants and water from extended rains; without forests, pollution increases and massive flooding further decreases the usability of the deforested areas.

Economic and Demographic Trends

 

Poverty in many developed countries can be linked to economic trends. In the 1950s and 1960s, for example, most people in the United States experienced strong income growth. Taking inflation into account, average family income almost doubled during this period. However, between the early 1970s and the early 1990s typical incomes, adjusted for inflation, grew little while the cost of living increased. Periods of economic recession tend to particularly affect young and less-educated people, who may have difficulty finding jobs that pay enough to support themselves.

Changes in labor markets in developed countries have also contributed to increased poverty levels. For instance, the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs has declined, while the demand for workers in service- and technology-related industries has increased. Historically, people have learned the skills required for jobs that involve manual labor, such as those in manufacturing, either on the job or through easily accessible school vocational programs. As these jobs are replaced by service- and technology-related jobs—jobs that usually require skills taught at the college level—people who cannot afford a college education find it increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work.

In many developed nations the number of people living in poverty has increased due to rising disparities in the distribution of resources within these countries. Since the 1970s, for instance, the poorest 20 percent of all U.S. households have earned an increasingly smaller percentage of the total national income (generally less than 5 percent) while the wealthiest 5 percent of households have earned an increasingly greater percentage (about 45 percent of the total). During most of this period, those in the middle and the bottom of the income distribution have become progressively worse off as the cost of living has risen.

Some researchers also cite demographic shifts (changes in the makeup of populations) as contributing to increases in overall poverty. In particular, demographic shifts have led to increases in poverty among children. In the United States, for instance, typical family structures have changed significantly, leading to an increase in single-parent families, which tend to be poorer. Single-parent families with children have a much more difficult time escaping poverty than do two-parent families, in which adults can divide and share childcare and work duties. In 1970 about 87 percent of children lived with both of their parents, but by the turn of the century this figure had dropped to 69 percent. The divorce rate in the United States more than doubled between 1960 and 1980, although it stabilized in the 1980s and fell somewhat in the 1990s. More importantly, perhaps, the proportion of children born to unmarried parents grew from about 5 percent in the early 1960s to more than 33 percent by 2000.

Individual Responsibility and Welfare Dependency

 

There are differing beliefs about individual responsibility for poverty. Some people believe that poverty is a symptom of societal structure and that some proportion of any society inevitably will be poor. Others feel that poverty results from a failure of social institutions, such as the labor market and schools. These people feel that poverty is beyond the control of those who experience it, but might be remedied if appropriate policies were enacted. Other people feel that the poor intentionally behave in ways that cause or perpetuate their poverty. For instance, if people voluntarily choose to use drugs and this leads them to poverty, it can be argued that they are to blame for their situation. However, such an argument cannot completely explain cases in which poverty leads to drug dependence.

In addition, many people in developed countries blame cycles of poverty, or the tendency for the poor to remain poor, on overly generous welfare programs. Supporters of this position, including some politicians, argue against government spending and initiatives to help the poor. They believe that these programs provide incentives for people to stay poor in order to continue receiving payments and other support. This argument also suggests that welfare discourages work and marriage. In the United States and other developed countries, getting a job results in reduced welfare support; the same is true when a single parent gets married. However, cash welfare benefits for the typical poor U.S. family with children fell in value by half between the early 1970s and the mid-1990s, taking inflation into account. Such benefits may have been too meager to motivate people to stay on welfare or to avoid work or marriage.

In the United States, the belief that cash welfare assistance actually encouraged personal decisions leading to poverty dominated policy discussions of the 1990s. In response, in 1996 the U.S. Congress created a new welfare program called Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF). This program ended the guarantee of cash benefits for poor families with children, shifted more control to the states, and established stricter work requirements for recipients. The numbers of poor families with children receiving cash welfare fell dramatically, from 4.6 million in 1996 to 2.1 million at the end of 2001. The poverty rate for children also fell during the 1990s, from more than 20 percent in the early part of the decade to about 16 percent by the end of the decade. Experts disagree, however, on what drove the reductions in both welfare caseloads and poverty: changes in welfare policy or the dynamic economy that prevailed during most of this period.

As well as its causes, poverty has wide-ranging and often devastating effects. Many of its effects, such as poor nutrition and physical health problems, result directly from having too little income or too few resources. As a result of poor nutrition and health problems, infant mortality rates among the poor are higher than average, and life expectancies are lower than average. Other effects of poverty may include infectious disease, mental illness, and drug dependence. Some effects of poverty are not as easily understood. For example, studies link poverty to crime, but by no means are all poor people also criminals. In many cases, the primary effects of poverty lead to other problems. Extended hunger and lack of employment, for instance, may lead to depression, which may sometimes contribute to criminal behavior. The relationship between poverty and personal or social problems is very complex. For example, studies of mothers on welfare reveal that those with multiple problems—such as depression, substance abuse, and being a victim of domestic violence—are much less likely to find work and escape poverty. What is less clear, however, is whether these problems result from the disadvantages of poverty.

Malnutrition and Starvation

Malnutrition is one of the most common effects of poverty. In developing countries, the poorest people cannot obtain adequate calories to develop or maintain their appropriate body weight. In Ethiopia, for example, it is estimated that almost half of all children under the age of 5 suffer from malnutrition. Poor children in developing countries often suffer the most, commonly from a deficiency known as protein-energy malnutrition. In these cases, children lack protein in their diets, especially from an insufficient amount of mother’s milk. Protein-energy malnutrition leads to a variety of problems, including gastrointestinal disorders, stunted growth, poor mental development, and high rates of infection. Prolonged malnutrition can lead to starvation, a condition in which the body’s tissues and organs deteriorate. Long-term starvation almost always results in death.

In addition to caloric malnutrition, most poor children and adults suffer from severe vitamin and mineral deficiencies. These deficiencies can lead to mental disorders; damage to vital organs; failure of the senses, such as poor vision; problems conceiving or delivering babies; and gastrointestinal distress.

Even in the major cities of developed nations, the poor often have unhealthful diets. Resulting in part from a lack of health care and nutritional education and in part from the lower availability and higher cost of better-quality foods, the urban poor tend to eat too much of the wrong kinds of foods. The urban poor commonly eat foods that are fatty or fried, high in sugar and salt, and made of mostly processed carbohydrates. Their diets are often high in low-grade fatty meats, chips, candies, and desserts and low in vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and high-quality lean meats and fish. Such diets commonly cause obesity and hypertension, both of which can contribute to heart disease and other ailments.

Infectious Disease and Exposure to the Elements

In addition to the effects of malnutrition, the poor experience high rates of infectious disease. Inadequate shelter or housing creates conditions that promote disease. Without decent protection, many of the poor are exposed to severe and dangerous weather as well as to bacteria and viruses carried by other people and animals. In the tropics, monsoons and hurricanes can destroy the flimsy shelters of the poor. Once exposed, people are vulnerable to fluctuations in temperature that lower their resistance to disease. They also are more likely to become infected with diseases carried by insects or rodents. For instance, mosquitoes carry malaria, a debilitating disease that is common in the tropics. In arid regions, drought leaves the poor without clean water for drinking or bathing. In temperate climates, including in the major cities of developed countries, homelessness is a growing problem. Many of the homeless poor are harmed by or die of exposure to extreme winter cold.

Inadequate sanitation and unhygienic practices among the poor also lead to illness. Inadequate sanitation almost always accompanies inadequate shelter. Because the poor in developing nations commonly have no running water or sewage facilities, human excrement and garbage accumulate, quickly becoming a breeding ground for disease. In cities, especially in ghettoes and shantytowns that house only poor people, overcrowding can lead to high transmission rates of airborne diseases, such as tuberculosis. The poor are also often uneducated about the spread of diseases, notably sexually transmitted infections (STIs). As a result—and because prophylactic devices such as condoms may be hard to obtain or afford, especially in developing countries—STI rates are high among the poor. In particular, the incidence of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) among poor people is higher than average.

Along with the problem of a high incidence of disease, developing countries also have shortages of doctors. Medicine and treatment are often both scarce and too expensive for the poor. For example, only 18 percent of children in Somalia had been immunized against diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus in 1999; the comparable rate in the United States was 96 percent. In addition, many people who live in rural areas of developing countries cannot get to doctors located in urban areas. In developed countries, the poor may have no health insurance, making the costs of health care unaffordable.

Drug Dependence and Mental Illness

In most developed countries, rates of mental illness are highest among the poor. The most common disorders associated with poverty are depression and anxiety disorders. Without meaningful, well-paying work and the resources and social affirmation that come with it, many poor people develop low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness. People who are stressed by the uncertainty of where they will get their next meal or spend the night often develop high anxiety. Because the poor experience high rates of severe mental illness, they also have high rates of suicide.

Some poor people attempt to relieve feelings of anxiety and depression associated with poverty through the use of mind-altering drugs. A common drug among the poor is alcohol, which is legal and affordable. Many of those who drink develop alcoholism, becoming physically and emotionally dependent on drinking. Others use and often become addicted to more dangerous and often illegal drugs, including heroin, methamphetamines, and cocaine. Of these drug users, those who take drugs intravenously (by injection into a vein) and share needles with others also suffer from high rates of diseases transmitted through blood and other bodily fluids, including AIDS.

Mental illness and drug dependence demonstrate the difficulties of distinguishing between poverty’s causes and its effects. Mentally ill and drug-dependent people tend to have trouble holding steady jobs and maintaining relationships, causing them to fall into poverty. They may also have difficulty lifting themselves out of poverty. At the same time, in some cases poverty itself appears to promote mental illness and drug dependence.

Crime and Violence

Some experts believe that poverty leads people to commit acts of violence and crime. Anger, desperation, and the need for money for food, shelter, and other necessities may all contribute to criminal behavior among the poor. Other experts caution that the link of cause and effect between poverty and crime is unclear. In some cases, poverty undoubtedly motivates people to commit crimes, although it may not be the only factor involved. Other problems associated with poverty are often linked to crime. For example, to obtain money some poor people commit the crime of selling illegal drugs; others may steal to obtain the money to buy drugs on which they are dependent.

Long-Term Effects

People who grow up in poverty may experience lifelong problems because of it. They are at a disadvantage in things such as education because they have limited income and resources. All children also need adequate nutrition and health care for good physical and mental development, and poor children are often malnourished and sick from a young age.

Studies have shown that people who grow up in persistently poor households experience more difficulties throughout their lives than those raised in households that are above the poverty level. Overall, they do not do as well in school, have more difficulties in marriage, and more frequently become single parents. In addition, poverty tends to perpetuate itself. In many cases, those who had poor parents are poor themselves, earning lower-than-average incomes. They may also have learned a mindset that keeps them from getting out of poverty. All of these negative long-term effects are much more likely to occur if children experience prolonged poverty, an unfortunate circumstance much more likely to affect minority children.

Additionally, as a principal solution of penury, national governments use poverty measurements to develop programs that provide assistance to the poor. All developed countries have extensive antipoverty programs, primarily in the form of social security and welfare systems. Most developing countries have some form of social security, but these programs typically do not provide enough to keep many people out of poverty. International organizations also use poverty measurements to decide how much money to give to national governments and how to advise countries on strategies for reducing poverty.

Fighting Poverty in Developing Countries

The governments of most developing countries provide limited assistance to prevent some poverty. Most have at least minimal social security programs, which provide benefits during periods of unemployment, illness, or disability; at retirement; and to the families of deceased workers. These programs usually provide support only for people who are employed full-time—a very small percentage of the population in most developing countries. Some countries, such as Bangladesh and Nepal, provide mandatory full support only to government employees. A variety of organizations support antipoverty programs in developing countries. They include (1) international government organizations, such as the UN, (2) aid agencies run by developed countries, (3) nongovernmental (mostly nonprofit) organizations, and (4) private development banks.

Many international governmental organizations have antipoverty programs. These include many regional organizations, such as the Organization of American States and the European Union, as well as the UN, which encompasses countries around the world. The UN operates many of the largest antipoverty programs through its branch agencies. The UN Development Program runs a variety of programs in developing countries to increase literacy rates, create jobs, share technologies from developed countries with developing countries, protect the environment and natural resources, and ensure women’s rights. Other UN agencies involved in alleviating poverty in the developing world include the United Nations Children’s Fund, which provides food, medicine, and education programs for children worldwide, and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, which supports increased agricultural productivity and improved food distribution and nutrition.

The governments of all developed nations have agencies devoted to international economic assistance. These agencies lend or grant money to developing countries and also operate antipoverty programs in those countries. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID), an arm of the State Department, sponsors many efforts similar to those run by the UNDP (United Nations Development Program). Economic and other kinds of assistance given to one nation by another, known as bilateral aid, have humanitarian as well as political and economic aims. For instance, AID designs many of its programs to reduce human suffering from poverty; the same programs may also aim to decrease the power of unfriendly and undemocratic governments and to increase free trade, which are politically and economically beneficial goals for the United States. Multilateral aid, such as that provided jointly by the many countries belonging to the UN, has more directly humanitarian aims. For instance, the UN and its member countries support democratic governments based essentially on the belief that democracy improves people’s well-being.

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) operate with support from private citizens and foundations, volunteer workers, and government grants. Developing countries themselves run some NGOs. Other NGOs operate out of developed countries and are often associated with large church organizations. International NGOs that work to alleviate poverty in the developing world include Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere, Inc. (CARE), Oxfam International, and Catholic Relief Services, all of which sponsor programs that provide health services, food, education, and economic support. Doctors Without Borders and the Red Cross both provide medical assistance in poor countries, especially during crises such as famines, wars, and disease epidemics.

Private development banks provide loans on favorable terms to governments or citizens of developing countries. They do not give grants or charitable donations. Like NGOs, some of these banks operate within developing countries. Bangladesh’s Grameen Bank, one of the best-known small private development banks, has made small loans to thousands of citizens experiencing hardship, including women who would otherwise have difficulty accessing funds because of their social status.

The World Bank (see International Bank for Reconstruction and Development), the best-known large private development bank, operates internationally and has its headquarters in the United States. The World Bank makes large loans to governments of developing countries to finance projects intended to strengthen the economies of these nations. World Bank-financed projects have included building roads, dams for power generation, and industries.

U.S. Anti-Poverty Programs

A number of U.S. government agencies use poverty statistics to decide how much to spend on welfare programs and transfers of money, goods, and services to help the poor. Federal programs that aim directly at helping poor people in the United States include Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), which provides short-term cash benefits to many unemployed adults with children; Supplemental Security Income (SSI), which provides extra income to poor people who are elderly, have disabilities, or are visually impaired; Medicaid, which provides health care to those unable to afford to buy health insurance; the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), which reduces the amount of federal tax owed by low-income working families and can result in a refund check for those who owe no taxes; and the Child Tax Credit, which provides tax credits of $600 per eligible child and may result in a refund check for poor families. The U.S. government also has invested heavily in strengthening the child support enforcement system, resulting in increased collections of child support from parents not living with their children.

In addition to the Census Bureau’s official poverty thresholds used for guiding welfare programs, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) publishes a set of poverty guidelines. For 2002, in the continental United States, HHS poverty guidelines allowed targeted (restricted) benefits to go to individuals with incomes below $8,860 and families with incomes lower than that figure plus $3,080 for each additional person in the family. These guidelines are simplifications of the Census Bureau thresholds and are used for determining eligibility in a number of programs targeted to low-income groups. Such targeted programs include Head Start, a supplemental education program for young children of poor families; Food Stamps, a program that provides vouchers for the purchase of food; the National School Lunch Program, which pays for poor students’ meals in public schools; and the Low-Income Energy Assistance Program, which subsidizes the expense of electric and heating bills for poor people.

In addition to government programs, many NGOs in the United States provide aid to the poor at local, state, and national levels. One of the largest national NGOs addressing the problems of poverty is the United Way, which provides a variety of types of assistance to people in need. Habitat for Humanity, another NGO with programs throughout the country, recruits volunteers to build affordable housing for the poor.

Therefore, to bulwark suicide bombing is a hard nut to crack. Extremism and terrorism neither breed in a day nor can they be stamped out overnight. Exposure of immature minds to torrents of bigoted ideas during their formative phase of life is the major cause of fanaticism. Due to perpetual exposure to fierce speeches and violence generating print and electronic media the exposed individuals develop hardheaded outlook. After incorporation of fanatic ideas they do not change them throughout their lives. These live balls of fire can be misused by nefarious elements for materialization of their personal agendas. Extremism and exorbitant kind of terrorism can be rooted out through rejuvenation of vibrant social institutions because their full-fledged and active participation to socialize human beings is mandatory to groom them on moderate and modern lines to make them viable members of society.

Unprecedented extremism and outrageous terrorist activities in the contemporary world are direct or indirect repercussions of degradation of consanguine families to nuclear families. This individualism in the society provides fertile breeding ground for torrent of immoderate emotions to mushroom. The presence of a cracked education system has augmented menaces of belligerence and brutality manifolds because it teaches means of churning out money without providing guidance for character building or indoctrination of tolerance, ethical values and moral principles. The existence of a capitalist economic system that is based on exploitation has developed sense of deprivation in the people scrapping the bottom of the barrel. They resort to violent means to settle their scores with the loaded on-velvet class whom they consider responsible for their dismal state of affairs.

Deliberate distortion of religious instructions by the vested interests to inculcate extremism instead of instilling grains of forbearance and fraternity through actual religious teachings has resulted in several incidents of bloodshed. Corollary of delivering fierce speeches that instill violence and propaganda of wheeler-dealer and paranoid mass media to spread such loath-laden print and telecast materials adds fuel to the fire. Unbridled freedom of expression that ignites and insult sentiments of others incites people to fiercely retaliate in the name of protecting their faiths and ideologies. In the contemporary world man has made progress in the scientific arena with gigantic strides. But, sarcastically, with each passing day he is becoming more indifferent and brutal because of unchecked burgeoning and misuse of scientific technology that have thrown gleams of anticipation to found global harmony and peaceful co-existence to the back burner. He has prepared deadly weapons of mass destruction that can steamroll the whole human race in case of eruption of a global warfare. Therefore, all his progress in this context is counterproductive.

Waging of unjust wars by the power intoxicated crocodiles having hegemonic designs on the weak nation states are palpable testimonies of prevalence of gross social injustice at international level. Suppression of freedom and secessionist movements by the potent sovereign states and abuse of giants' strength by the states sponsoring terrorism have generated vengeance in the oppressed community against their oppressors. The power drunk global fat cats are politically subjugating and economically exploiting those already skating on their uppers all over the world. The powerful countries adopt double standards to fix intricate international issues. The only global organization UN is a toothless lion that has been hijacked by those power inebriated countries who conceived it to legitimize their illegitimate actions. Therefore, it has badly botched to resolve intricate regional and global issues on just basis. The sufferer regions facing unresolved predicaments have become thriving breeding lands of miscreants. Decay of state institutions, occurrence of despotism and pervasiveness of poverty-stricken, illiterate and unemployed teeming millions especially in the developing countries have shattered trust of their publics in their nation states. Such suffocating ambiance provides fertile grounds for extremism and terrorism to rapidly flourish.

There is great diversity of reasons that induce suicide bombers to tear down themselves. Generally speaking suicide bombers wreak havoc due to certain ideological missions or the sufferers use self-immolation operations to inflict vengeance on their adversarial aggressors to settle scores. The Kamikazes used suicide air strikes because they followed ritual of altruistic suicide (Hara-kiri).The Japanese hailed those suicide pilots national heroes because they sacrificed their lives in hour of need to safeguard their national cause. The PKK fighters and Tamil Tigers of the LTTE engaged in secessionist missions are following their ethnic ideologies. Natives of Lebanon , Palestine , Afghanistan and Iraq used suicide operations against their oppressors and foreign invaders to get rid of them so that their upcoming generations can breathe in an alive and kicking ambiance of liberty. Although, these regions have become breeding grounds of extremist elements but on any international criteria the violence of the natives fighting for freedom from the clutches foreign intruders is totally justified. Suicides bombing incidents in Pakistan are direct or indirect repercussions of Pakistan "s support in American War on Terrorism. Foreign intelligence agencies are also sponsoring these horrendous attacks to create instability in Pakistan to dismember and denuclearize it.

Suicide bombings ensuing due to revenge are prevalent in certain regions where sanguinary conflicts among various ethnic, religious and interest groups are ubiquitous. Kith and kin or sympathizers that share common affiliations with sufferers" tribe, sect or religious group become bloodthirsty enemies of the perpetrators, supporters and sponsors of martial actions. Suicide bombers follow different religions that reveal absurdity of the western claim that Islamic fundamentalists are involved in wreaking martyrdom operations to kill others. The Kamikazes were followers of Shintoism, the Tamil Tigers tread in the steps of Hinduism while the PKK fighters were the followers of Marxist-Leninist ideology before dismemberment of the Soviet Union . Even now their struggle is for ethnic purpose rather than for any religious ideology. In Lebanon and Palestine suicide bombing is a poor man's weapon against the latest technology possessing military powers. In Afghanistan, Iraq and Pakistan suicide operations are repercussions of rabid American policies in the past and the so-called War against Terrorism that is actually war on resources because blood-spattered repercussions of 9/11 tragedy speak volumes that it was carried out to crush Muslims and to suck resources of the Islamic world.

Mainstream of the suicide bombers belong to male gender but in certain regions females are substantially participating in inflicting these most violent operations. The Black Widows of Chechnya and the female suicide bombers of the PKK are more in numbers than the males committing such fierce actions. About 30-40 percent of the suicide bombers belonging to Tamil Tigers were females. In case of Iraq , Afghanistan , Pakistan , Lebanon and Palestine the numbers of female suicide bombers pale into insignificance in comparison of their male complements. The female suicide bombers have an edge over the male ones because they look pregnant by wearing explosive belts under their clothes. In the underdeveloped countries all-inclusive searching of females in considered unethical. Therefore, they face little interception and more easily escape from the grip of law enforcement agencies than their male counterparts to target their enemies.

Blood-stained history of dying to kill operations reveals that preponderance of the suicide bombers were of 15-25 years that were brainwashed by the experienced persons for certain mission because it is very easy to convince expressively thrilling young people as compare to double-check aged ones for inflicting terrorism. Veteran leading persons of various regional, religious and ethnic groups engaged in ideological, secessionist or freedom movements prepare suicide bombing squadrons of persuaded and emotionally charged persons to foist vengeance on their enemies. In majority of the cases the suicide bombers belong to ethnic, sectarian or religious minority group who target civilians, security personnel, top leadership, and government installations of their opponents. In perspective of suicide bombers they are being trained for ultimate sacrifice to safeguard their ethnic, regional or ideological concerns. The suicide belts or jackets are the most common weapons. Sometimes the determined violent missionaries blow up explosive-laden vehicles after striking their targets to cause maximum damage to their rivals. Kamikazes used obsolete aircrafts to strike American naval vessels during the World War II. In 9/11 attacks passenger planes were used to target the Twin Towers and the Pentagon that were icons of American economic power and military strength respectively.

Suicide bombings have grave implications for social, political and economic fabric of the suffering country by damaging its image in the constellation of nations. Gradually worsening law and order situations in the volatile regions have generated uncertainty and fear in the communities where war and terrorism are ruling the roost. Terrorist incidents have deep psychological impact on injured victims and bystanders especially children. The observers of such incidents remain under influence of apprehensions and trepidations throughout their lives. Frequent exposures to dead and mutilated bodies telecast and printed by the mass media indoctrinate indifference and callous attitude in the viewers. There is massive loss of lives and permanent debilitations of the victims in suicide explosions. The whole family suffers if the earning person is being killed in a terrorist incident. Peaceful atmosphere is mandatory for foreign investment because uncertain security situation discourages investors to invest their moneybags where lives of the people are not safe. A government that fails to provide security of life and property to its own citizens cannot give any guarantee to the foreign investors. Volatile law and order situation also dishearten foreign tourists. Despite of the presence of glistening peaks, towering mountains, sprawling deserts, gushing rivers, historical monuments and archeological sites the tourism industry of Pakistan is in the doldrums because its Tourism Ministry has failed to magnetize foreign sightseers due to uncertain security situation.

Availability of strong justice dispensing institutions at national and international level by ladling out fairness can help in ending unjust military adventures and abuse of giant's strength by the power intoxicated dinosaurs. Establishment and promotion of genuine democracy can lend countenance to resolve various intricate issues through diplomacy instead of bullet operations. There must be responsible use of freedom of expression to avoid insulting sentiments of others because unchecked and irresponsible verbal diarrhea has given birth to several bloodstained repercussions. Media violence and xenophobic distortion should be restrained by framing a code of conduct because evil genius media personnel having bee in their bonnet can twist views of millions by printing and airing various events in unsavory light that can endanger peace in the world. Long nose top cats and worldwide organizations should relinquish double standards to put in place different twiddly affairs. The contemporary socio-economic problems should be resolved by framing sound and viable strategies to make certain that filings of humanity have easy access to means of livelihood and educational institutions. This can trim down ignorance and impoverishment by fixing dilemmas of illiteracy and unemployment that are staring several nation states in the face.

Revivification of consanguinity for proper upbringing of the individuals and reformation of education on moderate and modern line are essential for instilling tolerance in the subjects. Restructuring of economy to bridge the gap between the up-in-the-dough and the offscorings of humanity is the crying need of time that can bring to a halt fleecing of those skating on their uppers by those already wallowing in pelf and plenty. Renaissance of true religious teachings and overhauling of religious seminaries can indoctrinate open-mindedness in the followers of various religions and school of thoughts. Bluenose leading lights of the world should come down from their high horse to work for promotion of interfaith and intersect dialogues to highlight commonalities instead of differences in various ideologies to avert blood-spattered conflicts due to diehard misunderstandings. The leaderships of various nation states should imbibe genuine patriotism in their publics instead of blind nationalism to ward off flaring of any great war on chauvinistic lines. Rejuvenation of energetic intelligence and law enforcement agencies can nab miscreants by tracing their networks and taking prompt steps to take them into custody. The above mentioned chain of steps can be very fruitful to scale down growing menaces of extremism, terrorism and suicide bombing.

Lack of education is perhaps the greatest contributor to poverty in Egypt today. Generally with education comes life skills and knowledge. Without an education it is extremely hard to make it in today's society. As Egypt is a third world developing country it is assumable there would be a large number of people in poverty. The job market is highly selective these days. With transcripts needed to obtain a job, many people will be looked down upon because of their education status.

According to Global Issues, nearly a billion people entered the 21st century unable to read a book or sign their names. It is almost impossible for people to get any sort of decent job, if they are illiterate. In a recent study I did for a project, I interviewed homeless people, asking them their reasons for living on the street. About 90 percent of them had not graduated from even high school. Having an education allows people to learn common Math and English skills, however also provides them with preparation for the real world. The more educated on is, the more attainable high paying jobs are. It is much easier to obtain a job, having graduated college or even high school.

Another big factor of poverty is the ever-growing single parent's population. With more divorces now days, more mothers are being forced to be the sole care takers of their children, making it harder to get full time jobs. If parents are not able to leave their children unattended they either have to pay for childcare or work less hours, settling for less of an income. “The divorced mother of a 16-year-old daughter, Azza Hemdan has worked for the Giza Municipal Social Solidarity Sector for 12 years, earning exactly LE 240 a month” (el-Jesri). This issue is also a large contributor to poverty in today's society. Throughout recent years there have been several discussions of one more classification for a cause of poverty.

Discrimination also plays a large role in poverty. People can be discriminated against due to their age, ethnicity, and even physical appearance. Now if English is not someone's fluent language the jobs available decrease an extreme amount. Another important factor in today's poverty line is the amount of people who inherit their wealth. If someone is born into money, as opposed to someone who must work their way up, the person with the wealthy family will most likely be rich. For some people it is necessary to work for their money, while for others it is handed down to them.

Finally another factor, which is often overlooked, is the matter of luck. If one happens to be naturally smart it will inevitably be easier to succeed in life, over someone who has to work much harder to gain knowledge. Luck is also very important in inherited wealth. Some people just get lucky and get money handed to them by their parents, and some people happen to have connections at high paying jobs. Luck is the one thing that cannot be changed in relation to poverty. All of the previous factors listed contribute greatly to our increasing poverty rate, and unless people step up and start making education a priority not much will change within our lifetime.

Drugs are things that many people have experimented with and they will always be experimented with by those that are curious and keen to try new experiences. Unfortunately, some drugs have such a bad effect on their users that they become almost instantly addictive. This leads to all sorts of problems for society, not least of which is the criminal activities of the addicts who steal and mug to get their “fix”.

Drugs are easily available. A quick trip to your friendly neighbourhood local pub is all you need and provided you know the right person you can get a “teenth of blow”, a “wrap of coke” or an “ecstasy tab”. The people you buy them from them usually seem to be nice respectable people, often the sort you wouldn't mind having as your next door neighbour.

But these people are criminals. The people that supply are criminals. The people that do the “wholesale” supply are criminals.

These criminals are gangs, organised in networks that tolerate no mistakes on the suppliers lower down the chain. They are ruthless and protect their “business” with violence, intimidation and even murder. They don't care who they hurt or how they hurt them. Money is the be all end all of their business. Often these people, at the top of the supply chain, are involved in prostitution, people trafficking and other nefarious and vile activities. Some are even linked to terrorism.

But if hard drugs were legalised, including speed, cocaine, heroin and crystal meth, there would be some very beneficial side effects to society.

Firstly, lets start with the people at the bottom of the chain - the junkie who mugs old ladies and innocent people going about their business and who breaks into people's homes. They do this to get whatever they can to buy their fix. If drugs were legalised, and available free on prescription, the addict would go to their pharmacy to get their fix. There would be no need to rob 86 year old Mrs Jones when she comes out of the Post Office with her pension. There would be no need to break into Mr Smith's house and steal his laptop. There would be no need to go shoplifting in Tesco.

The drugs are available - free of charge. The addict would be far too “cabbaged” to go mugging, house breaking or shoplifting.

A further benefit would be that about half of these people would take up drugs counselling and would actually come off drugs. The “shame” of being a drug addict would be removed and so they would no longer live their lives in the underground but in the open, with a chance of becoming part of wider society.

And then the supplier to the junkie. Remember the respectable bloke that you wouldn't mind for your next neighbour? Except if he's caught he gets a criminal record, loses his wife and family, his house, his job. Probably then takes drugs to counter his depression and becomes a junkie who then goes out mugging old ladies and breaking into houses.

But then there's the people in the supply network above your likeable bloke in the pub. And the people above them. And above them.

They would all become redundant if hard drugs became legal. All the way up to the people that organise this evil trade.

Admittedly, there would still be other “lines” for the organised crime moguls to profit from. However, the people they recruit into certain parts of their networks would no longer be as easily available. We all know that a large number of prostitutes are drug addicts and therefore dependant upon the drug lords - they have to sell their bodies to make money to pay the drug barons for the drugs they depend on.

Again, if these ladies could get their drugs from the local branch of Lloyd's Pharmacy then they would not be dependant upon the drugs barons to provide “protection” for their activities.

The argument here, as I am sure you can guess, is to remove hard drugs away from the criminal element and provide them as a treatment to those that need them. Take the drugs away from the criminals and you take away their customers - and no customers would make their endeavours fruitless.

G.W. Bush (2002)

Africa. What can be done to attend to this continent's chronic political and humanitarian crises? It is taken as gospel that the root cause of the decay, instability, and humanitarian disasters which characterise Sub-Saharan Africa is a Western-educated elite who pervert democratic norms. However, much blame can be attributed to Western democracies, and to the former colonial powers - countries which systematically stripped Africa of its resources and natural wealth, then deserted it. Only our better-off Western powers can now heal Africa.

Due to the constant instability of the region, foreign companies are hesitant to invest in Africa. This lack of investment and unpredictability has created communities of high unemployment. African countries rely on an aid system which puts countries into debt. They are unable to set-out their own stall and be self-sufficient. Therefore, the majority of Africa's people live in poverty.

This lack of wealth has effectively turned Africa into a white-collar fraud free-for-all - where political cliques and ethnic groups are engaged in a constant dogfight for ownership and control of a finite stock of resources. So Africa is locked into a destructive cycle of unemployment, civil war and debt.

In addition, since colonial times, Africa's economic and social status has been fully concerned with the business of primary industry -- agriculture, oil and minerals. As a result of this monism, Africa now has a problem adapting to foster an environment fit for the money-producing service industries. Consequently, it is unable to compete in the global economy.

Though unique cases in their own right, Uganda, Equatorial Guinea and the Sudan, exhibit typical characteristics of an African state.

In Uganda, President Yoweri Museveni has been in office since 1986, when restrictions on multi-party elections were imposed.

The first multi-party election in 25 years happened in February 2006 and Museveni was declared the winner. However, despite a technically democratic election, the opposition parties had endured harassment by the incumbents.

Museveni's government has been accused of corruption, embezzling public funds and charging opposition leader Kiiza Besigye with treason, rape and terrorism. His supporters say these charges were politically motivated.

Uganda does not and cannot suppress democracy by itself. For example, a South African-based subsidiary of British defence company BAE Systems supplies the armoured vehicles which are routinely used to quell opposition protests.

It is this type of support the Western world must stop. One cannot denounce a regime with the right hand, and supply it with military hardware with the left. The short-term profit of Western companies must be forsaken for the long-term prospects of fully functioning and legitimate African markets.

Since its independence in 1968, Equatorial Guinea has only been ruled by two men - and they are from the same family. The current president of Equatorial Guinea is Teodoro Obiang Nguema. Nguema attended a military academy in Spain and his assent to the leadership of Equatorial Guinea has something of the aura of Greek tragedy. He overthrew and executed his uncle.

Country officials say Nguema won more than 97% of the vote in the country's most-recent presidential elections, in December 2002.

The majority of the £370 million revenue the country generates is confiscated by the president, whilst most of Equatorial Guinea's 500,000 subjects subsist on less than a dollar a day.

Diplomats and ministers have been caught smuggling drugs using diplomatic bags and even the president's baggage.

Teodorin Nguema Obiang, 35, the eldest son of the President, is the favourite to succeed his father. In August 2006, the ageing dictator sacked his 50-man cabinet but reinstated Teodorin as minister of forestry. While Teodorin is his father's favourite, the Western oil companies favour Gabriel, his younger brother.

Two-thirds of Equatoguinean oil is bought and sold by American oil companies, which should make the country's activities a key concern of the United States government.

But Teodorin, a graduate of Pepperdine University in Malibu, California, doesn't have a care in the world. Two years ago, a South African legal battle shed light into Teodorin's wealth and extravagance. He has homes in Los Angeles, Buenos Aires and Paris, and once descended on Cape Town spending £1M on two Bentleys, which sat in their garages unused. He has an on-off relationship with the Grammy Award-winning singer Eve. The couple met when Teodorin hired the 303-foot yacht Tatoosh which belongs to Paul Allen, the Microsoft billionaire.

Sudan has been the victim of an almost continuous civil war since 1956. In June 1989, President Omar al-Bashir led a military coup and gained control of the country.

The Sudanese government's militias are accused of being guilty of crimes against humanity and it continues to neglect its citizens in Darfur. In addition, government forces have attacked civilians and humanitarian workers in Darfur. Sympathizers of rebel groups are arbitrarily detained, as are foreign journalists, human rights workers, student activists and refugees.

The Darfur Conflict is a war the likes of which is rarely seen. Since 2003, the nomadic tribes have been fighting against the sedentary population of the region. The United States' State Department's human rights report (issued in March 2007) reports that "All parties committed serious abuses, including widespread killing of civilians, rape as a tool of war, systematic torture, robbery and recruitment of child soldiers".

The war, if it can be called that, can be attributed to three factors: the ethnic and tribal lines of the people's involved; ownership and control of the (hereditary) grazing grounds and farmland; and the marked decrease in rainfall; ergo water.

Peace and security: The Case of Sierra Leone

The president is head of state, head of government and commander-in-chief of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces and the Sierra Leone Police.

The government maintains strong control over the media. The political elite cannot be mentioned in the press, and the imprisonment and beating of journalists is not rare.

In 1991, the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) began attacking villages near the Liberian border in the south, seizing diamond mines and destabilizing the country. Rebels sold diamonds on the black market to buy weapons and became notorious for chopping off the limbs of victims.

There was a brief return to civilian rule in 1996, which was halted by another coup, which was eventually repelled by the West African peacekeeping force, the Economic Community of West African States armed Monitoring Group or ECOMOG, led by troops from Nigeria.

A peace agreement was signed in 1999, which integrated RUF leaders into the government, and the United Nations set-up a body to oversee the transition to peace: the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL). However, the RUF took members of the mission hostage and confiscated their arms and ammunition and the violence resumed.

In 2002, with the aid of international forces, including 200 British troops, the rebels were disarmed.

Up to the present time, more than 70,000 combatants have been disarmed and put through vocational and educational programmes. However, a fractured economic base without jobs makes it difficult for youths to reintegrate into society.

A report by Human Rights Watch, released in 2005 said that “There is an inextricable link between the level of economic deprivation and the continuing cycle of war crimes throughout the region.”

What Can the Western World Do About Africa?

 

Before we can determine what should be done to heal Africa, several questions need to be answered: how will we know when there is a successfully functioning market economy? What are the systems and conditions that need to be in place before a modern society can grow and thrive, and can these prerequisites exist in Africa? Finally, how does globalisation affect the democratic and economic prospects of an African nation?

In Africa, more than in any other continent, the international community has the power to demand more democratic and responsible governance and to support the people that support that cause.

African states are internationally weak and dependent (70% of Chad's budget comes from international donors). In Nigeria the regime needs foreign investment and its leaders crave legitimacy and acceptance from the world. Also, the personal assets of many corrupt African elites are invested heavily in Europe, Canada, and the U.S. Their children attend private schools there and they shop and spend holidays in the Western world. They need visas to do this. This gives the Western democracies real leverage, if they choose to use it.

The Western aid so systematically directed toward military budgets should be redirected toward schools, hospitals and businesses.

A plan needs to be formulated which brings Africa into the 21st century - a continent which no longer relies solely on primary resources. This plan must not only include the widespread basic education that has been so instrumental in the East Asian miracle, Sierra Leone and Zambia, but also information technology and marketing schools, as well as investment from big business.

Since nineteen United States servicemen were killed in 1993 in the infamous “Black Hawk Down” incident, it would be extremely difficult to get the American public to support the deployment of U.S. troops to restore democracy in an African state, but Britain has had success in peacekeeping missions in the cases of Kosovo in 1999 and Sierra Leone in 2002. Other powerful nations could step-up and give assistance to such efforts.

On the matter of violence within Africa, the United States National Security Agency (NSA) suggested three linked strategies: Countries with a major influence on their region; like South Africa, Nigeria, and Kenya, should be hubs for regional engagement; there must be coordination with allies and international institutions for conflict mediation, as in the example of Nigeria and Sierra Leone; and Africa's capable states and regional organizations must be strengthened as the primary means to address terrorist activities.

Pressure from Western states has made a difference in several instances, but only when the major democracies have been united. African states need to hear a coherent message. One large obstacle to Africa's democratic and developmental progress has been the lack of consistency of Western powers over time.

When African military officers depose a functioning democracy, they should be told clearly, unanimously, and forcefully by the international community that their regime will be isolated from any support and that they must leave power and restore a constitutional system.

There are still too many “Western-approved” regimes - although they are never overtly referred to as such. For example, the continuing French support for a number of authoritarian “customer” states and continuing American support for Egypt shows compliance and a degree of recklessness on the part of these powerful states.

A new bargain needs to be brokered between Africa and the West, swapping debt for democracy and investment for integrity. However, as we know, this is easier said than done.

14,590 text messages?! I cannot fathom doing that; I don't care how much time I have on my hands, arthritis would set in before I could reach such a milestone. Don't get me wrong, I like texting. For me, it's one of the best methods at my disposal to keep in touch with friends of mine that I don't see all that often. I have friends throughout the country as well as the world and a text message is perfect in order to say hello and see how they're doing.

Another great aspect is that texting is less intrusive than a phone call. Some people feel obligated to answer the phone, regardless of where they happen to be, which can be annoying and disrespectful. A text message is something that you can receive, read, and then reply at your leisure.

You also don't have to commit a lot of time to sending and receiving text messages, although the figure mentioned above would suggest otherwise. A phone call can go on for hours, distracting you from what you're doing. A text message is something that you can get, reply to and then go about your business, and then come back to it and take it from there.

There is one thing that I don't like about texting. It has become a substitute for face-to-face conversation. I was walking through the mall the other week, and saw two young girls texting each other, even though they were only a few feet apart. I don't get that. I prefer face-to-face, but sometimes it's just not possible.

Maybe we're too dependent on technology as a way to communicate with one another. But I'm guilty of this reliance, like most of us likely are. I am lost without my cell phone and the options it gives me in keeping in touch with friends and family. The irony of it all is, is that I'm a huge fan of the old fashioned written letter. It's a lost art in my opinion and one that I strive to keep alive in my own little way.

I will never send or receive anything close to 14,590 text messages, not even within a year's time, and I hope I never do. I like texting, as I'm sure most do, but I can't help but feel that this new technology is making our personal interaction impersonal.

If drugs were decriminalized, drug laws would still be intact, but non-violent addicts convicted of possession would receive treatment as opposed to a prison sentence. Addicts would be treated as diseased as opposed to criminals. Currently, treatment is only available to approximately 15% of addicts in the United States. Under decriminalization possession becomes an infraction as opposed to a felony. Dealer and violent addicts, however, would still face jail time. This course of action would not only decrease the overcrowded prison population, but it would also make drugs available to addicts from clinics, thereby reducing the demand for drug dealers.

There are two approaches to be considered if decriminalization were to occur. The first is the harm-reduction (public health) approach. The goal is to minimize social problems as well as health problems. Anything that reduces any risks to the user or society is beneficial. Under a harm-reduction policy, substances that are currently illegal would be placed under restrictions similar to alcohol and tobacco. Because the state would be regulating the production and distribution of drugs, the black market would disappear. Advocates of the harm-reduction policy also believe that no one should be denied health care based on behavioral reasons, such as a history of drug abuse. Supporters also promote programs such as methadone clinics, DanceSafe, and efforts to increase designated drivers because all these programs minimize the risks of harming one's self.

The rights-based approach is the other perspective on the decriminalization debate. Advocates of the rights-based approach believe that the rights of an individual adult should be guaranteed out of respect to one's moral values and rights. Essentially, a person has the right to put whatever he/she wants into his/her body in private places (i.e. in the comfort of one's home). As long as it does not cause harm to another, the individual has the moral right to do whatever he/she wants to his/her body. Since drug use is a victimless crime, people should not be punished or prohibited for such behavior. Another argument supporting the rights-based approach is that it is one's moral imperative to experiment with drugs. This ties into the belief that certain chemicals, mainly hallucinogens, produce an altered state that forces one outside the normal boundaries of human existence. One consumes drugs, therefore, in the name of human evolution. The rights-based approach also acknowledges people's religious right to use mind-altering substances in a ritualistic fashion.

Several fallacies of prohibition lead people to support the alternative of decriminalization. Firstly, illicit drugs are still available and, in fact, have become cheaper, more potent, and easily accessible. Secondly, the illegal status of intravenous drugs, such as heroin, produces a short supply of needles, leading to the spread of HIV/Aids and Hepatitis C. Money spent on health costs to treat such diseases drains society as well as taxpayers' wallets. Finally, the stigma attached to addicts, especially those with convictions, decreases one's chances for education and employment.

Supporters of decriminalization have many other reasons why the current policy of prohibition is not working. One reason is the forbidden fruit factor. Quite simply, people want what they cannot have. That which is prohibited becomes an excuse for rebellion. The allure of wanting what you cannot have romanticizes drug use. The romantic notion glorifies drug dealers, who show off their expensive jewelry and designer clothing. Teenagers especially want to emulate this lifestyle and abandon legitimate jobs in search of quick cash. The entire lifestyle of drug use becomes glorified.

Another argument is the fact that alcohol and tobacco are legal. Alcohol and tobacco account for approximately 20% of all yearly deaths in the United States alone. Marijuana, on the other hand, has no record in its entire history of death. While people have options to seek help for alcoholism and quitting smoking, it is difficult for users of illicit drugs to seek help because of the stigma surrounding illegal drugs. The addict is immoral and criminal, and therefore unworthy of medical attention.

A third factor is the amount of impurities currently found in illegal drugs. Many illegal drugs are cut with another substance in order for the dealer to increase his/her profit. This in turn increases the opportunities for unexpected effects as well as overdoses. If legalized, addiction would become a public health issue, and drugs could be controlled for purity and dosage. The government would enforce quality control.

Finally, the inability to conduct medical research on certain chemicals creates a strong argument for decriminalization. The illegality of recreational drugs consequently makes it illegal to pursue medical research on such substances. Schedule I drugs, such as marijuana, ecstasy, and LSD, have no medical value. Many drugs are thrown into this category before there is even a chance to do research. In fact, before made illegal, studies have shown ecstasy to be beneficial in treating Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.

In conclusion, many factors are at play in the decriminalization debate. Although there are two existing viewpoints on how to approach the problem, one thing is clear: the criminal justice approach only demoralizes people. It makes it difficult for addicts to ask for help. It punishes the casual user with extreme mandatory minimum sentences. It overcrowds prisons with non-violent offenders. Although decriminalization has its benefits, it is still unfortunately not considered a serious alternative to prohibition within the United States by many individuals.