A Shock Heard Round the World

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I was in fifth grade at the time Challenger fell out of sky and as a child, it was easy to express emotion after we had met a few of the astronauts not long before it happened. It was the first time in my life that I had experienced a tragedy and the tears were overcoming. At 31 years of age, I can still picture what I was doing and where I was. I think many people can relate.

September 11th Faces in the Smoke

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This was such a shock to the entire world that when I first heard of the news I didn't believe it. It was as though someone was playing a prank or it was a taped happening like "War of the Worlds" in 1938, which drew people to insanity thinking the world was ending and aliens would be taking over. I took time to reflect since I had lost a dear friend I went to school with that was working in the tower. Til this day, it still seems like a bad dream or a major motion picture filled with excellent special affects.

Vietnam

To this day no one really knows why we were there.

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The US initially entered the war to prevent communism in South Vietnam, so they say. In the 1960's drones of us soldiers deployed to a  country that was a walking  land mine and hundreds upon thousands died for a reason unknown to the world. From a perspective of a US soldier, this was his interpretation" Let them be and let them destroy themselves. Who are we to stop them!". This was of course the view of Vietnam in the 60's, especially for any counter culture youth at the time.

Holocaust

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Over 6 million human beings were murdered in cold blood by a country that still to this day turns their heads in vain to a happening they still don't believe ever happened. The truth is in the pictures and in the stories told by people that lived through these gruesome happenings.

Titanic

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With close to 1800 people that went into the freezing Arctic waters, the tales of Titanic are passed down from generation to generation. Unfortunately, the captain ignored early warnings of icebergs and foggy weather with the high hopes of reaching America earlier than expected. One decision steered this boat of death into the deep abyss and the bottom of the ocean  is now a murky grave for passengers.

Hindenburg

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This major Airship disaster of the German Zepplin caught fire and crashed in to the "dock of the Lakehurst Naval Air Station in Manchester, New Jersey in 1937". The cause of this disasterous event is still unknown and the remains of that day caused the use of airships to be a thing of the past.

The early Romans used the moon as a guide to measure the months. That led to a twelve-month year that came up short, with only 355 days. To keep the four seasons at the right time, the habit of occasionally adding extra weeks and days began. But corrupt public officials used this as an advantage. They began to change the calendar to lengthen their own terms in office and shorten the terms of detested rivals. So they were in fact stealing time to selfishly expand their own political purposes.

By 46 B.C., the Roman year was more than two whole months off the actual date. That is when the leader of the Romans - Julius Caesar - took charge and invented a new solar calendar. This resulted in a year that is 365 days long. He also changed New Year's Day from the start of March to January 1, and added one extra day every four years. Rivals complained that Caesar was not satisfied in ruling the earth, but had to control the heavens as well.

To bring the calendar back to normal, Caesar plunked two extra months to the year 46 B.C between November and December and three weeks between February and March. The consequence was a year that no one had seen before - 445 days long! This year in Rome was forever known as the “year of confusion,” but Caesar himself was quick to point out that it was actually the year the confusion came to an end.

Source: The Greatest Stories Never Told, by Rick Beyer

                                 

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In some views, the owl is more than her patron as she is sometimes depicted as being the owl. It was her excellence in war intelligence that lead to victories, and it was this that made her so revered.

The Greeks were always fighting Amazons but as such, Greek warriors were unhappy to have to fight women. They tolerated the Grecian Athena whom was, in their eyes, virtually no different than an Amazonian woman warrior except that she was on the side of the Greeks. She so aided the Greek cause and was such a brilliant military tactician that she had earned their reverence. So happy were they for her help and strategies during the Persian War they in the 5th century B.C. the constructed a monument on the Athenian Acropolis, they Parthenon, to honor her.

The patroness of Athens, Athena is not ever shown to be with an owl and only rarely shown with any symbol for the owl, so much as being depicted as the owl.

Modern day statuette of Athena’s owl.

This is a souvenir that my father-in-law bought for my wife while on a stop-over at Heathrow Airport, in London, England about ten years ago. Holding this small but weighty object is a pure delight. At only 1-inch wide and approximately 1 3/4-inch tall, it is surprisingly heavier than it looks.

The Owl is Strength and Wisdom

The very appearance of this Athenian Owl exudes a feeling of great wisdom, strength and intelligence. A perfect symbol to represent a Goddess.

Athena is quoted to have said to Odysseus to quell his doubts of her:

"Most people are content to put their trust in far less powerful allies, mere men and not equipped with wisdom such as mine. But I that have never ceased to watch over you in all your adventures am a goddess."

There is some allusion to Athena’s ability to shape-shift back and forth, transitioning between both female human form and that of an owl. The owl is Athena. Athena is the owl. Her intellectual campaign in war, depicted as a warrior owl, shows her presence, her strategy and her exceptional skill in the art of successful warfare campaign against the enemy. The owl represents pure wisdom. It is a powerful symbolic duality, Athena and the Owl. It is possibly this Greek mythology why the owl is so revered to this day as being supremely wise and scholarly in so many cultures.

The Athenian Owl tetradrachm

Honored in a silver coin (specifically, called a tetradrachm) that originated from Athens, for over 300 years (approx. 430 – 99 B.C.) the Athenian Owl coin was accepted everywhere as legal tender for trade and commerce. It is cited to have had a stabilization effect on the economy of the known world for it’s far reaching recognition and purity, uniformity of weight, it’s standard was accepted across borders much like the U.S. dollar has enjoyed for most of the last century.

Several different versions of the designs were known, and all were all individually hand-stuck and there are enough variations to make specimens of the same issue noticeably unique from it’s contemporaries. -Despite a reusable die, no two coins were struck exactly alike. It is cited that if even as many as 50 coins of the same type of Athenian Owl coin were compared closely, every one would be slightly different with an identifiable unique provenance. Such is what happens with hand-struck coins.

Modern reproductions, Collectible Coins

Some very talented modern day metal workers make reproductions for sale as novelty collectibles, such as this one here from my personal collection, purchased from an online coin dealer for a reasonable price.

Modern day reproduction of the Owl of Athena coin, shown larger than actual size.

(All photos by thestickman, -that’s me)

As a young lad the scantily clad women on the cards were eye opening and as a slightly older young lad, the innuendoes were well worth a titter behind the card rack. Of course you didn’t pick one of those to buy, not in front of mum and dad; you chose a nice view of the resort. Then you took it back to where you were staying to write out to send to your friend back home.

If you were feeling kind the message usually was “Having a nice time, wish you were here.” However if you were that way out, and wanted to remind him that he wasn’t on holiday while you were then it would be, “Having a fantastic time. Wish you were here?”

By the time you were into your teens then inevitably you’d be bold enough to pick and send one of the saucy ones.

During the holiday season I’m sure delivering the mail gave the postman a bit of a giggle.

The Benny Hill type humour reflected British humour that was popular in the late fifties, sixties and seventies and seen in the popular “Carry On” series of films.

They usually contained buxom women, hen pecked husbands and “courting” couples, and always the innuendo or double entendre.

The postcard first appeared in the mid nineteenth century.

In “A brief history of the picture postcard” by Judith & Stephen Holder (FRPS) they write

“The creation of the postcard by Dr Emanuel Hermann in Austria on 1 October 1869 set in motion a revolution in the communication of the ordinary message of no especial importance, the private note, the mundane or jolly remark, the 'wish you were here' - indeed any short note for which no real 'security' was required.

Almost all the main developments in the artistic designs of Postcard art originated on the continent, in Germany, Austria, France, Italy and Switzerland. The two main exceptions which developed in Great Britain were the Comic card and to some extent the Real Photograph cards of social, industrial and village history.”

Jonathan Duffy (BBC News Online) quotes from a book by Collector Tom Phillips.

“They were classless and democratic and the limited space was a blessing to those with poor spelling or without much to say. “

In an essay in 1941, the renowned author George Orwell wrote:

“Who does not know the 'comics' of the cheap stationers' windows, the penny or twopenny coloured post cards with their endless succession of fat women in tight bathing-dresses and their crude drawing and unbearable colours, chiefly hedge-sparrow's-egg tint and Post Office red?”

“In general, however, they are not witty, but humorous, and it must be said for McGill's post cards, in particular, that the drawing is often a good deal funnier than the joke beneath it.”

Donald McGill ,was one of several notable illustrators, who among others included Tom Browne, John Hassall, Bruce Bairnsfather and Alfred Lees.

Unfortunately for McGill he was the unlucky one.

In the 1950’s there was a public morals backlash and Watch Committees were set up in seaside resorts. This led to the 81 year old McGill being prosecuted under the Obscene Publications Act of 1857, and several of his cards being destroyed.

These are some of them

They seem somewhat tame by today’s standards. It was enough however to cause confusion to the shop owners selling them and to cause several printers to cease trading.

After a couple of years this “do-gooder” attitude subsided and the illustrators and printers were back in business.

How are postcards faring in today’s “techno” climate?

In a recent survey the broadcaster ITV said that the number of postcards sent has dropped by 75 per cent. It showed that 67 per cent of those surveyed used emails or photos while on holiday, to keep in touch with family and friends.

And Donald McGill?

In 1994 the Royal Mail brought out a set of commemorative stamps featuring McGill's postcards.

For art and my other articles, visit:

C Jordan

Or for George Orwell's essay

The Art of Donald McGill

The Tex-Mex geography and weather conditions were ideal for the Spanish cattle – adaptation came easily. Tough, aggressive, and anything but slow on their feet, the longhorns had little to fear from predators. So the herds prospered and multiplied rapidly making the ranchers much more than financially stable. Many of them became rich beyond their wildest dreams – the richer they became, the more cattle they bought. At the same time, the cattle were allowed to live in free conditions which prompted their wildness. So as time went on the ranchers began to find it more and more difficult to control their herds.

Over the years, out of necessity, cowboys began to invent equipment and workout new techniques for dealing with their longhorns. Thus, the art of cattle roping was born. And over the years they became skillful in the use of horse and rope, as well as knowledgeable in the ways of the new breed of cattle. Even so, a great number of calves and steers escaped and spread in all directions from their home ranges.

By the time our Civil War ended, the mid-western territories were heavily stocked with wild longhorns. Without legally marked brands, the steers became the property of anyone who would catch them. Discharged soldiers from the North and the South began to drift into Texas in search of land, work, adventure, and a better sphere of living.

Of course,  there were many settlers and pilgrims who owned and raised cattle, but these people were not considered cowboys. It  was the ex-soldiers along with migrating drifters, homesteaders, Mexican’s, and former outlaws who became what we what we call "real cowboys".

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Propaganda, by its very nature, will work in stereotypes and this poster was to show the fighting men that the women they associated with may not have been as safe as they perhaps considered.  There is no mention of who might have given the poor girl the sexually transmitted disease in the first place, but the aim was not so much to apportion blame as to reduce the huge amount of disease that was impeding the war effort - in any way shape or form.

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Easy to get, difficult to get rid of!  A subliminal message here warned men away from women in general, as well as warning about the danger of disease. The color of the poster, in this case then, is appropriate.  The scarlet woman was a danger.  The only real difference between today's safer sex messages and this is that for every poster depicting a woman, today we will have a counterpart featuring an equally louche young man.

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Everyone knows that the female of the species is more deadly than the male and more than a little misogyny was considered fine when it came to getting the message across.  Although some posters were a deal more subtle than this, in general the female form was represented more or less as saint or sinner during the Second World War period.  The threat of the evil female went counter to so many male sensibilities that this poster would have had a great impact.  Are we guiltless of this type of uber-bitch stereotyping?  Take a look at Wilhelmina Slater in Ugly Betty and think again!

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So, if she isn't spying for the other side, the silly little thing is moaning about her loneliness in public and giving the game away to the Nazi or Japanese spy lurking in the coffee shop (we all know that is where most secrets are given away).  Careless Talk Cost Lives was a hugely successful slogan of the time and no doubt the posters helped save many, despite the finger of accusation of pointing in the direction of hapless females. 

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Images of women were, of course, used to do just the opposite.  It is easy to look back at these posters and wonder whether or not there was some societal psychosis happening, such are the mixed messages being given out about women and their nature.  Psychosis is probably too strong a word for it, but certainly, this was a time when the roles of women had to be re-evaluated to cope with a global emergency.  Traditional roles would not win the war, as this war was total. 

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When not giving men various nasty diseases and inadvertently (or not) blabbing about secrets, women were often portrayed as victims of the lust of the (carefully racially stereotyped) enemy.  So, fight against them, fight for them.  And if the enemy gets his hands on her she will become untouchable.  The assumption of male ownership of women and their connection with the "home" is a given, here.  Are our own twenty first century sensibilities so different?

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Male ownership of women is further reinforced by this poster which is aimed more at children but states explicitly "Be like Dad, keep mum!".  If you are unaware of the double meaning here, keeping mum meant to stay quiet.  Mum being the diminutive of mother, this poster puts the kids in the picture about their own role in war time and "mum" firmly in place behind the kitchen sink.  This poster would probably be banned in a nanosecond these days!

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An honest woman, though, will do an honest day's work - notably without lipstick.  Sturdy and proud, she will toil the land and provide the food for the fight.  The idea of woman as material provider is as old as the hills and one that we can still very much associate with today.

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This poster should really have said "for" not "with" the men who fly, as women in Britain and America were not allowed to take an active part in flight missions except in an administrative way.  Many were flown in to occupied Europe as spies, that is true, but when in uniform they were restricted to office work and other mundane - but necessary - duties.  The Russians had an entirely female squadron of pilots, who were greatly feared by their German counterparts.  Today, female fighter pilots, while hardly usual, are generally accepted as part of most occidental armed forces.

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Factory work was a hugely important - and dangerous - part of the war effort in all countries involved.  Many hundreds of thousands of women spent the war years in claustrophobic and unhealthy workplaces making the weapons of mass destruction that the men would use.  The propaganda posters urging them in to these positions did little to expose them to the reality of the factory before they actually got there, however.

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As with any propaganda, the truth is always distorted - and if Photoshop had been in existence in the nineteen forties then fingers would have been pointed at the figure in this poster and the word "air-brushing" mumbled quietly.  It would have been serendipity in the extreme to discover a woman like this in any factory in any country during the Second World War.  However, posters like this did the trick and women helped win the war for the allies by getting their hands dirty.

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Farm work was probably safer but the rosy cheeked beauty exhorting women to plough the fields and scatter was a far cry from the reality of the situation.  Back-breaking work and unfeasibly long hours that would nowadays get most employers in to a court room were the average lot for the land girls.  The continual exposure to the elements, too, left them looking less and less like the poster girl as the months went by.

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Nurses were needed in huge numbers during the conflict and this poster pleaded with women to join the Red Cross.  Whether or not this poster did the trick is anyone's guess.  This particular young lady looks as if she might well be related to a certain Mildred Ratched and is just about to wring the neck of the poor unfortunate soldier in her tender care. 

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Women were sometimes pictured in propaganda posters doing a serious military job.  In reality there were many women in mainland Europe who took up arms against the enemy, but in lands which were fortunate not to be invaded by land, women did play an important role in intercepting enemy messages and other similar work.  Bletchley Park in the UK, one of Churchill's secret intelligence and computer centers, was not averse to employing women - sexual discrimination was here, at least, not considered important and people were judged by their brain not their gender.

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Many women were encouraged to work in intelligence and administrative capacities in the armed services.  Again, the posters for these positions were glamorized - often to an unfeasible extent - but this type of poster does recognize the need for women to do jobs.  The Second World War probably did a great deal for universal suffrage as more than just an idea, but what were women expected to do after the fighting ended? 

....that Grave and Wholesome Liquor
That heals the Stomach, makes the Genius quicker,
Relieves the Memory, revives the Sad,
And cheers the spirit, without making Mad.
Any coffee drinker can attest to these unique qualities of coffee.

Romantic Beginning

Around c 850, some goats and an intuitive goatherd, named Kaldi, made a discovery that would soon take the world by storm. As the story went, some goats tasted these berries and became perky. An observant goatherd saw the effects and decided to try it for himself. Soon, he was dancing with the goats too! Noting its invigorating effects, he passed his discovery to the local monks. Soon these monks discovered a way to make a hot drink, which they used to keep themselves awake during overnight religious ceremony.

History tells us that the nomadic Oromo people of East Africa of the same era also found a way to make energy balls with the protein-rich coffee beans. Rolled together with animal fat, this early version of power bars were consumed to give warriors much needed energy for battle.

A Yemen Innovation

In time, the coffee beans made their way across a narrow strip of the Red Sea to Yemen where the drink quickly rose in popularity. The art of making coffee drink was often attributed to Muhammad al Dhabhani, scholar and a member of the Sufi order of Islam. He proclaimed that under the influence of coffee, he could"...unhorse forty men and possess forty women." No wonder, Sufi monks readily used the brew to stay awake during nocturnal prayer sessions.
The Arabs then began seriously cultivating coffee and coined the word, "qahwa," the Arab word for wine, from which coffee is derived. Like a wildfire, Muslim pilgrims spread coffee throughout the Islam world. By the end of 15th century, coffee had taken hold of Persia, Turkey and North Africa. The word Mocha, a household word in the coffee industry originated from the Port of Al-Mokha. Coffee was so popular that the port became synonymous with coffee, and many simply referred to the drink as Mokha.

As coffee percolated the Arab world, it finally reached Mecca and Cairo in 1510. Coffee houses known as Kaveh Kanes began to sprout throughout Mecca. Originally religious in purpose, these houses became great places to socialize, exchanging secular and political conversations. They eventually allowed chess and backgammon playing. While its popularity rose, the physical effects of coffee were often the subject of much controversy. Because of its intoxicating effects, some overly concerned religious leaders were adamant about banning coffee. However, these attempts were largely ignored and coffee continued to be sold in the street, in the marketplace and in coffee houses.

Holy Man Steals Seeds

For a while, the Arabs guarded their coffee industry with great diligence. Coffee plots were guarded and no fertile coffee beans were allowed to leave the country. However, this coveted commodity cannot survive the ingenuity of men. Especially when it came in the clout of a religious man.

Earliest reliable report dates the presence of coffee in India to 1695. It was believed that a Muslim pilgrim by the name of Babu Budan went to Mecca for his pilgrimage and upon his return, smuggled some seeds "strapped to his belly." That was before they thought of body search and he obtained the first fertile seeds outside the Ottomon Empire. He reportedly planted it outside his hermit's cave in Chandragiri, from which sprang India's coffee industry, now the seventh largest in the world. Although there is no documentary evidence for this, Babu Budan is still revered in India today for his understated chivalry and the mountain cave he once lived in continues to attract many pilgrims.

Coffee Euphoria

Initially, coffee was only enjoyed by the wealthiest of Europe. It was also marketed as an expensive cure-all commodity. The Venetians were the first Europeans to take an interest in the drink. Coffee entered the port of Venice and soon, coffee houses were opened in 1645.
When coffee made its debut in the western world, there were serious objections as to the virtue of coffee drinking. Shortly before his death, in 1605, Pope Clement VIII was asked to state the Catholic stand on coffee. The Pope was able to taste a sample provided by a Venetian merchant before making his decision. He was reportedly so smitten by its taste and aroma, that he proclaimed it, "The Christian Drink."

Within half a century, this once exotic elixir was becoming commonplace in Western Europe. Coffee houses sprang up in Britain in the 1650s and in Amsterdam and Hague during the 1660s.

Rise of Coffee Houses

Interestingly, the first coffee houses in England appeared under the puritanical rule of Oliver Cromwell who came to power just after end of the English War after the execution of King Charles. He encouraged the opening of coffee houses as a more respectable and healthier alternative to taverns. In stark contrast to the gloom and squalor of taverns, these modern coffee houses were well lit, adorned with bookshelves, mirrors, pictures in gilt frames and good furniture. Naturally they became comfortable social centers for political debate and intellectual discussion.

The first coffee house in London was opened in 1652 by Pasqua Rosee, an Armenian servant of an English merchant, Daniel Edwards, who had acquired a taste for coffee while traveling in the Middle East. He had a great business plan. He marketed coffee for its medical value-effective against sore eyes, headache, coughs, dropsy, gout, scurvy and to prevent "Mis-carryings in Child-bearing Women." He also promoted the commercial benefits of coffee:"It will prevent Drowsiness, and make one fit for business..."

With such marketing strategies, his coffee house attained such success that the local tavern keepers were infuriated. They protested to the mayor and then forced him out of the country. However, the idea of coffee house had taken roots and by 1663, there were 83 coffee houses in and around London. Although many were destroyed in the Great Fire of London, many quickly sprang up in their place. By the end of the century, there were hundreds.

When King Charles II ascended the throne after Cromwell'death, he became suspicious of the freedom of speech allowed in coffee houses and hence their suitability for hatching plots. He tried to close these coffee houses. However, there was such a public outcry that the proclamation was largely ignored. Coffee houses had become central to social, commercial and political life in London. They had become the modern version of coffee house internet. They functioned as information exchanges for the scientists, businessmen, writers and politicians.
When France opened its first coffee house in 1671, doctors in France under pressure from wine merchants who feared for their livelihood, were quick to attack coffee on health grounds. They cited coffee as a "vile and worthless foreign novelty...the fruit discovered by goats and camels."

The attacks fell on deaf ears as coffee was fast gaining grounds as a fashionable drink.
The coffee mania caught on in Germany too. The famous composer, Johann Sebastian Back, even wrote a "Coffee Cantata," to make fun of the those who opposed coffee on medical grounds. Holland fell under the coffee spell too. An observant writer wrote, "its use has become so common in our country that unless the maids and seamstresses have their coffee every morning, the thread will not go through the eye of the needle." Coffee has conquered the world.

End of Monopoly

Until the end of the 17th century, the Arab world continued to enjoy the coffee monopoly. The rest of the world had to depend on trade for this previous commodity. As coffee's popularity grew, the European countries began to make plans to establish their own coffee supplies. The forbidden fruit had grown too irresistible.

The Dutch were the first to burst the monopoly bubble. This powerful country was able to displace the Portuguese as the dominant European nation in the East Indies to gain control of the spice trade. By some act of ingenuity, they were able to purloin coffee cuttings, where they were taken to Amsterdam and successfully cultivated in greenhouses. In the 1690s, they established coffee plantations in Batavia in Java, an island colony in Indonesia.

Not to be outdone, the French were the next to join the race. Frenchman, Gabriel Matthieu de Clieu was a naval officer stationed on the French island of Martinique. During his visit to Paris, he took it upon himself to procure some coffee cuttings from the only known coffee plant in Paris, given to Louis XIV by the Dutch. He managed to befriend an aristocratic young lady with royal connections to the royal doctor, who was entitled to use whatever plants he wanted in his medical preparation. His plan worked and he was able to obtain a cutting. With the previous cutting in hand, he then proceeded to transverse the Atlantic.

De Clieu's attempt to transport the cutting back to Martinique was quite an adventure in itself. He had to carefully nurse it, while trying to ward off the unwelcomed attention of a mysterious passenger who spoke French with a Dutch accent. His suspicions were confirmed when the Dutchman snapped off one of the shoots when de Clieu was sleeping. Then the ship had a brush with a pirate corsair and narrowly escaped. However, his trials were far from over. A storm came and drenched the poor cutting with seawater. Then the sky cleared but water was in short supply. He reportedly shared his scanty ration with his beloved coffee cutting.

His devotion didn't end when he landed. Once he arrived safely home, he set about planting the cutting in the most favorable part of his garden. He even hedged the precious cutting with thorn bushes as a preventive measure. Two years later, his devotion paid off. He had his first harvest. From then, he sent some coffee plants to the islands of Santo Domingo and Guadeloupe, where they flourished. Production soon exceeded domestic demands and the French were able to ship the excess from Marseilles to Levant.

In recognition of de Clieu's heroic efforts, he was presented to Louis XV in1746. Descendants of de Clieu's original plant were also transplanted in Haiti, Cuba, Costa Rica and Venezuela.
Brazil wanted a slice of the coffee market too. In 1727, they sent Lt. Col. Francisco de Melo Palheta, their own homegrown agent to smuggle some seeds. Purportedly, he was sent to settle a border dispute. However, he was smart enough to realize that there was no way to scale those fortress-like coffee farms for those coveted beans. He used his charms to procure some from the governor's wife. At the state farewell dinner, the unsuspectingly lady presented him with a bouquet spiked with seedlings. His efforts paid off. Brazil is now the world's leading coffee supplier, thanks to a suave agent and a smitten wife.

Popularity in America

Coffee made its way to America in the early 1700's. New York and other important towns like Boston introduced the popular institution. Today, Starbucks, a chain coffee store, is found in most parts of the world.

Coffee has come a long way from its humble beginning in the wilderness of Ethiopa. From Ethiopia to Yemen, to the rest of the Arab world to the rest of the Western world, coffee has survived the test and tide of time. Once touted as the devil's drink, synonymous to alcohol, coffee has now become a safe alternative to alcohol. Once the drink of a select few, notably the wealthy and celebrated, it is now the favored drink of the masses. More than 400 billion cups are consumed each year. While we can't exactly call it the opium of the masses, it's the drink that most people need to begin their day.

The origins of Halloween Date back to the Celtic's, who lived over 2000 years ago. The Celts celebrated a festival of Samhain (sow-in), it was celebrated though out the United kingdom, Ireland, and northern France. This celebration was to mark the ending of the summer harvest, the end of a year, and the beginning of the dark, cold winter, a time that has always been considered associated with human death. Celts believed that on the night before the new year, a boundary or sorts was opened, a boundary between the world of the living and that of the dead. It is on October 31st that the Celts believed that the ghosts and spirits of the dead returned. The Celts believe these ghosts ruined crops and cause trouble. It was also believed that the Celtic priests(druids) could easily make future predictions on this night. These prophecies were of vital importance to the Celtic people, it helped provide them with a sense of safety and comfort during the long, dark winter.

This Samhain festival was an exciting event in the Celt time; The priests built Huge sacred bonfires, where the people sacrificed crops and animals to the Celtic Deities. They dressed in costumes typically made of animal heads and skins, and they played games of prediction, trying to tell one another fortunes.

By A.D. 43, the Romans had conquered the majority of the Celts and for hundreds of years they ruled their lands. The festival of the Samhain was combined with Roman traditions. By the 800s the influence of Christianity had spread through out the Celtic lands, and in the 7th century pope Boniface IV designated November 1 as "All Saints Day". It was widely believed that the Pope was attempting to replace the Celtic's festival of the dead with a related Church sanctioned holiday. The celebration has also been known as, “All-Hallows Even, All-Hallowma's, Hallow E'en and of course Halloween.

Even later along the time line in AD 1000, the church would make November 2nd All souls Day to honour the dead. As the Celts, this day was celebrated with bonfires, paraded and of course dressing up in costumes.

For thousand of years people have believed halloween night to be associated with the dead, ghosts and spirits. And, because of those beliefs and the sacrifices they made we today have a tradition that is less dramatic but still exciting and a bit scary. Have fun this Halloween and remember the history that is associated with this dark night…and remember that ghosts could be about pulling tricks while you're getting treats……….. For real….

What ancient civilization was able to determine astronomical thousands of years into the future, is believed to be one of the first civilizations in the world to create a fully developed written language, and even invented the number 0? There’s only one: the Maya.

Beginning as early as 3000 B.C. and not reaching their collapse until the mid 1500s, this Mesoamerican civilization [Mesoamerica: The term used for the area from Central Mexico to El Salvador. The cultures of the Maya, Aztec, and Olmec are thus called "Mesoamerican."] flourished longer than almost any civilization on the planet. This is in fact, part of what helped them calculate such precise astronomical dates. By watching the orbits, cycles, and alignments of the universe, the Maya were able to determine when certain events would happen and how. They for example were able to determine that every 25,800 years, the center of the milky way aligns exactly with the sun. The Maya viewed this alignment as a new era, and some theorize that this was believed by the Maya to be a time when the world was destroyed, and then recreated. The next “rebirth” and actually the next alignment is going to happen on December 21, (and by some theories, the Maya may have thought of this rebirth on December 22, or 23) 2012. One theory however, recommends that crystal skulls that may or may not have been made by the Maya can save us. In fact, this idea of crystal skulls is what the latest Indiana Jones movie: “Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull”, is based on.




To show their astronomical dates and others, the Maya with the help of other Mesoamerican cultures, created three calendars: the Haab calendar, the Tzolkin calendar, and the Long Count calendar. The Long Count is actually slightly more accurate than our calendar today because of how it represents leap year, and could easily be used instead of our current Gregorian calendar.

According to Wikipedia, "Although the Mesoamerican calendar did not originate with the Maya, their subsequent extensions and refinements of it were the most sophisticated"

Each calendar served a different purpose: The Long Count was used to date historical events, The Tzolkin was used to date religious events, and the Haab was used to date more minor events.

The Maya also combined architecture with their ability to make calendars as well. Pyramids with steps were used, each step standing for a day. These “calendars” also have a special secret. At 3 PM on the autumn solstice, a serpent appears to crawl across the pyramid. In addition, these are some of the most well built monuments in the world, and have survived for over a thousand years in very good condition.

The Maya foretold the future on their calendars as well, however many of their fortunes are ridiculed by people. The Maya divided their primary predictions into eras all of which were twenty years each. These twenty periods, also called katuns, continue until December 21, 2012 (and by some theories December 22, or 23) and talk about a wide variety of predictions. One of their best known katuns began in 1855 and went until 1875, part of which was during the American Civil war. It said it will be a time when people will lose faith in their leaders. Leaders will be harmed, and subjects will separate. Skeptics however, believe this to be too broad of a prediction.

The best known discovery the Maya made, however is their discovery of 0, which was used to help them form their calendar in the first place. They are in fact believed by some scholars to be not only the first in North America, but the first in the world to create it. Although their counting system was very different than ours today, being based on a system of 20, not 10, their use of zero was just the same. Zero was represented by a shell, unlike the rest of their numbers which were a series of dots and lines.

Mayan Numbers 1-19. Because they used a base system of 20, 20 was written like 10, with a 1 above a 0.  21 was written with a 1 above a 1. For more information, see http://www.michielb.nl/maya/math.html I will also be writing an article about this in the future

To record all of their amazing achievements however, the Maya had to make yet another discovery. Writing. The Maya are believed to be one of the first civilizations in the world to create a fully developed written language, and made a smoother, more durable form of paper than the Romans. The Maya used this system of writing to create hundreds or possibly thousands of codices, (Codicies: books of information) in which they wrote about their rituals, customs, and of course, achievements. Sadly, during the Spanish conquest of Mexico, all but three and a not yet proven authentic fourth codex were destroyed. These remaining codices, now named for the city at which their located, are: the Dresden Codex, the Paris Codex, the Madrid Codex, and the not yet proven authentic Grollier Codex.

Unfortunately, most of the Mayan’s discoveries didn’t benefit us, because we didn’t actually translate any of these texts until around fifty years ago, and by then, we had all the Mayan had: A written language, the number 0, ways of building, and ways of predicting astronomical events.]

This is why the Maya aren’t that well known.

We still can however learn from the Maya. Thriving for some 4000 or more years, and making some of the most important discoveries known, the Maya can be considered one of the greatest civilizations ever to be formed. Knowing their achievements and faults can help us as a nation thrive as well. The ultimate downfall of their civilization came from the Spanish conquest of Mexico, most likely because they weren’t prepared for such a sudden attack. Their civilization became such a great one from their constant advancements and observations.

But one must still wonder. What else? Is that the only reason they thrived? Is there more to the Mayan's success? Perhaps there is another reason: King Pacal.

King Pacal (603-683 A.D.) was a well known Mayan leader who had an advanced knowledge in mathematics. King Pacal's predecessor was his mother, Sak K'uk'. In the Mayan culture, women only took the role of ruler if no men were available. When King Pacal reached 12 years of age, he, by Mayan standards, has reached his official maturity. Because of this, at 12 years of age, on July 29, 615, King Pacal officially became ruler of Palenque. On his tombstone, is a long inscription, and on him is a death mask made almost entirely out of jade. Because of this and other historical evidence, it has been concluded that King Pacal and his mother made a significant influence on the Maya. Perhaps leaders like him were what caused the civilization to thrive. Perhaps that is how the Maya civilization discovered so many things, and gave us so much.

But there is something more important the Maya gave us, than the jade masks, or the fact their advancements helped them thrive. It's that all of what they did was possible, even in such a primitive time. It really is hope, and knowing that nothing, no matter how difficult it may seem, is impossible.

Questions About the Maya

In the midst of my research, even after I compiled countless facts, there were many questions unanswered. Here are the primary questions I had, and some of the answers I found:

(A) Why is it that the Maya made such an accurate calendar, that we today can understand, but people can't agree on the specific date the Maya calendar ended in Gregorian terms: December 21, 22, or 23.

Answer: I'd like to first say the reason this is a curiosity. Besides wondering why the date isn't clear, the other reason is that many people believe the Maya may predicted a doomsday at the end of their calendar cycle. In fact, this is one of the best known doomsday prophecies. Why? Because of two things:

The Maya's past predictions have been fairly accurate in what they've predicted.

The dates all correspond with several astronomical events that would you'd think be impossible to predict such a long time ago without even telescopes to help them

Astronomical events? Yes, you read correctly. The sun will align exactly with the center of the Milky Way. This happens once every 25,800 years as I mentioned in the speech. This happens next on December 21, 2012, the most accepted date that the Mayan calendar will end.

Another event is the earth completing a wobble around its axis. This event known as precession, happens every 26,000 years, and next happens on December 21, 2012.

Whether there will actually be a doomsday is not certain, but the fact the Maya were able to determine such a date is most likely not a coincidence.

Enough of my blabbing. Continuing on to the answer
The reason a date isn't certain, even for such an accurate calendar is because of when the calendar started. The Long Count calendar began in 0.0.0.0.0 and ends in 13.0.0.0.0. You can read about where these numbers from from in the long count in this article:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_calendar The reason this is ending date is uncertain is because the actual date that 0.0.0.0.0 began is not known for sure. Most websites however, simply say the date they specifically think it will end, is the real date, instead of explaining the different theories.

Here's what we know:

The calendar began in 3114 B.C. It is not sure if the Maya civilization began in this year, but it's more commonly believed that the Maya decided this year at a later time when the civilization was formed.

We know the Calendar ends in 13.0.0.0.0, which would be in 2012.

We're almost positive the calendar started near August 11, meaning that it will end near December 21, 2012

Although the most widely accepted date the calendar started is August 11, 3114 B.C, meaning it will end on the 21st of December, some people believe it started on August 12, or 13, making it end on December 22, or 23.The Wikipedia article I linked to, doesn't mention that the starting date isn't proven yet, or that many sources consider it to be a later day.

(B) Why did only the history channel, and one or two other sources (only one of which gave any specifics about it) talk at all about any of the Mayans amazing Katuns (prophecies spanning 20 years) that told of subjects going against their leaders, leaders being harmed, and subjects separating between the years of 1855 and 1875 (part of which was during the civil war), foretold the acts of Martin Luther King, and even the American Revolution?

Answer: One could say that because limited sources talk about it, it's not real. It is in fact real. The history channel doesn't lie, and although the sources are limited, there are other sources that talk about it, although most simply mention it briefly. There really is no real reason I know of for sure as to why it seems to be such a secret. It may be that many people don't want to talk about them because they are afraid to talk about their accuracy. You see, the few people who do talk about them have pointed out how they do seem to correspond with many actual events. A major reason may be the fact they were believed to be made by one person; a Mayan Priest, named Chilam Balam.

You can see a list of katuns from and when they start and end from one of the few sources that does talk about them here: http://mmothra.blogspot.com/2005/04/maya-katun-prophecies.html

(C) Why are the Mayans so similar to the Egyptians, and why do some websites, books, and even the Indiana Jones Movie make reference to Egyptian artifacts and sculptures of Pharaohs being made by the Maya?

Answer: This is actually because of a theory proposed in a book called, “The Mayan Prophecies”. The theory is that the Maya may have been formed from Ancient Egyptians and the survivors of Atlantis, that may have landed in Central America or Mexico. The reason they think this is because of similarities in the Mayan writing and Egyptian hieroglyphics as well as other similarities such as the fact that both cultures have pyramids.

(D)Did the Maya foretell a specific time of day the world will end such as 11:00 PM?
Answer: As far as I can tell this is a myth. No mainstream sources have mentioned a time, and the few sources that have said the Maya foretold a specific time all say completely different times of day.

(E) After all the amazing things the Maya did, why are they not very well known?

Answer: The biggest reason is because we haven't translated much of what they wrote until around fifty years ago, which is what held many secrets about the Maya. Another reason is denial. Many people think that it's not possible for a civilization such a long time ago to determine any of the things they did. Others think that because they may have predicted a doomsday so soon, they don't know what they are talking about.

Something else I feel is important to mention is what happened in 900 A.D. This is probably the most common misunderstanding about the Maya and has probably posed a dilemma for you, the reader, as well. That is, f you've looked at several other articles besides just this one. Quite a few sites say that in 900 A.D. the Maya vanished and their civilization collapsed for unknown reasons.. This is incorrect, as Hernando Cortes landed in the Yucatan Peninsula where he met and claimed part of the Maya Civilization in the 1500's. Why the Yucatan Peninsula? Because in 900 A.D. their civilization wasn't wiped out. They disappeared because they abandoned their current homes in Southwestern Mexico and Central America (for unknown reasons) and migrated to the Yucatan Peninsula where they again reappeared until they were conquered by Spanish Conquistadors (starting with Cortes) in 1697.

Quick Facts

• The Maya elongated their children's skulls to be like Kukulkan
  
• Kukulkan is a well known Mayan God
• King Pacal was a Mayan leader who was found with a death mask made out of jade
• The Aztec calendar was based on the Maya calenader

Taking it Further

Learning isn't limited. Not everything about the Maya is mentioned here. So challenge yourself. Check out some more katuns about the Maya, and read some of the links I listed in my sources. Read the quick facts and maybe even take notes on them. Ask yourself a question like I did in the section above, and see if you can find an answer. You can even start to learn about another civilization like the Aztecs or Incas. Or you can also try some of the challenges I have below.

• A. Write a 1-2 paragraph essay summarizing the important points in this essay as well as the section: Taking it Further
  
  
• B. Imagine you are a part of the Mayan civilization in need of more people to join your city. Create an poster, list, paper or card board pyramid, or anything else you can think of to advertise the achievements and other reasons you should become a part of the civilization.
  
  
• C. As mentioned previously, some theories have been made that the Maya Civilization was made with the help of shipwrecked Egyptians. Research more about this. Defend or dispute this statement.
  
  
• D. Design a collage, showing some of the achievements of the Maya

If you actually do any of these, email them to me (or depending on the project, take a picture of it and email me that) you'll make me really happy :). And, I'll maybe put it in my blog.

If you have further questions, if you are unable to find an answer through further research or are just too lazy to research it, leave a comment.

For further information about the Maya, you can also check out my blog or google group:

http://americatheancient.blogspot.com/

http://groups.google.com/group/ancient-america

And if you like this article and care about my hopes and dreams, you'll join my google group

Definitions

When researching about the Maya you may encounter some of the following terms:

Mesoamerica-The term used to describe the areas between part of Central America (El Salvador) and central Mexico.

Ajaw-A term referring to a leader of a Mayan city.

Popul Vuh-Sometimes referred to as the Mayan bible, it is a book written in Classical Quiché in the 1500's that depicts the mythological stories of the Maya. It is believed to be based on past Mayan codicies.

King Pacal-A Mayan leader of Palenque, who took the throne at age 12 and succeeded his mother, Sak K'uk'.

Kukulkan-A word meaning feathered serpent, that refers to a God revered by many Mesoamerican cultures.

Quetzalcoatl-Another Mesoamerican God who was revered as the sky and creator God. He was more prominently known in the Aztec culture.

Codex (plural codicies)-originating in the first century, the codex is a book composed of folded sheets sewn along one edge, distinct from other writing vehicles such as the roll or tablet. The codex was initially a low-grade form manufactured of papyrus.

Sources and Great Links

Wikipedia entry on Mayan Civilization

History Channel's Decoding the Past: Mayan Doomsday Prophecies

The Mayan Prophecies, by Adrian G Gilbert and Maurice Cotterel

The Maya Astronomy page

Mayan Katuns

Maya Numbers

Future Research and Ways of Contact

In future research, and maybe even after simply reading this, you will likely have many questions. Many of my own questions, took hours of research, and conclusions of my own to answer. If you have a question about any Civilization of Ancient America, and would like some help researching the answer, I would be happy to assist you. You can contact me in any of the following ways:

Leaving a comment on this article

Joining the Google group and making a forum post: http://americatheancient.blogspot.com/

Leaving a comment on my blog: http://americatheancient.blogspot.com/

Thanks for reading, and feel free to leave a comment or ask a question.

To read the first part, click here.

Aristides de Sousa Mendes (1885 - 1954)

Portuguese Diplomat

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Sousa Mendes was was the Consul General in Bordeaux when France fell into the Nazi hands in 1940. Though the fascist dictator Antonio de Oliveira Salazar, whose personal belief highly favored Hitler, was able to preserve Portugal's neutrality during the war, he issued orders to all consuls not to grant visas to foreigners of questionable nationality or to Jews expelled from their countries. Following a few days crisis of conscience, he began issuing visas, an estimated total of about 30,000 of them, to help Jews and other persecuted minorities escape the Nazi terror. For his willful disobedience, he was dishonorably forced to quit his post. He found himself unable to continue his law career; and abandoned by his friends and colleagues. Deprived of his pension, he died in poverty in Lisbon in 1954, still in disgrace with his government. Sousa Mendes' posthumous honors include being listed as one of the "Righteous among the Nations" by Israel's Yad Vashem Holocaust memorial in 1966; and the Order of Liberty, one of Portugal's highest honors, in 1987.

"My desire is to be with God against men, rather than with men against God." - Sousa Mendes

"I could not have acted otherwise, and I therefore accept all that has befallen me with love." - Sousa Mendes

Albert Göring (1895 - 1966)

German Businessman

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Albert Göring was nothing like his elder brother, Hermann, who was a top Nazi party member. He despised the Nazi philosophy and the brutality it entailed. He would sometimes go out of his way to help Jews with the work that was forced upon them, such as scrubbing the street, but the SS official in charge would order every activity stopped upon learning of his identity, not willing that Hermann's brother be humiliated in public. On numerous occasions, he would forge his brother's signature on transit papers or send trucks to concentrations camps with labor requests, enabling many Jews and dissidents to escape. After the war, he was questioned at the Nuremberg Tribunal, where his brother was eventually convicted. He was subsequently released when many of those he had rescued testified on his behalf. Upon his return to Germany, he found himself rejected because of his family name. He passed away in 1966 with his heroic deeds still unacknowledged to this very day.

Necdet Kent (1911 - 2002)

Turkish Diplomat

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Kent was appointed to the post of Consul-General to Marseille from 1941 to 1944. There was one occasion when he himself intervened to save around 80 Jews who were forced to board into cattle trains for transport to Nazi camps. Much overwhelmed with anger by the sight; he boldly approached the German guards and demanded that they, whom he claimed were Turkish citizens, be released. At enormous risk to himself, he jumped onto the train when the guards refused to comply; a German officer ordered him to get off upon reaching the next station, but he was unyielding until the guards finally gave in to his request. As the other consulates in Marseille were beginning to imitate the Nazi attitude toward the Jews, Kent issued identity papers freely to Turkish Jews and other refugees; he also personally protested at the Gestapo headquarters of their detestable act of stripping males in the middle of the street to ascertain whether they are Jews or not, admonishing them that circumscision did not necessarily confirm one's Jewishness. In 2001, Kent was honored with Turkey's Supreme Service Medal as well as a special recognition from the Israeli state for saving Jews during the Holocaust.

Paul Grüninger (1891 - 1972)

Swiss Police Official

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Following the 1938 Austrian Anschluss, the government of Switzerland gave orders not to allow any refugees enter its borders. As a commander in the Canton of St. Gallen, Grüninger provided falsely dated travel documents in violation to these orders, thereby allowing some 3,600 Jewish refugees fleeing the Nazis in Austria to enter Switzerland. However, when his activities were discovered, he was dismissed in disgrace, convicted of fraud and sentenced to prison. Unable to find work as an ex-convict and denied of his pension rights, he died in poverty in 1972 with his heroic efforts unrecognized. In 1995, he was absolved by the district court of St. Gallen; and was also honored by Yad Vashem Holocaust Memorial as one of the "Righteous among the Nations."

Sára Salkaházi (1899 - 1944)

Hungarian Catholic Sister

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In 1930, Salkaházi, who belonged to an upper class family of German descent, made her religious vows to the Sisters of Social Service, where she had hoped to be sent on missions to Brazil, a hope that never came true due to the outbreak of World War II. During the final months of the war, she protected around 100 Jews in a house belonging to the Sisters of her order in Budapest, with the vow to sacrifice her own life in order to prevent any harm from happening to the other sisters. However, the Jews she had sheltered were betrayed by a woman employed at the sisters' house to a Hungarian pro-Nazi party. She was not present when the arrest occurred and could have escaped, yet she opted to return. They were brought to the bank of the Danube River, where they were all shot to death. Her heroic deeds for the Hungarian Jews were acknowledged by Yad Vashem in 1972 upon the recommendation of a daughter of one of the Jews who were executed along with her.

Corrie ten Boom (1892 - 1983)

Dutch reformed Christian Preacher

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The Ten Boom family was known for their many charitable works and gracious character toward everyone, especially the mentally and physically handicapped. When the Nazi occupied Netherlands in 1940, Corrie and her family became active in the Dutch underground resistance, helping all refugees (including many Jews and those hunted by the Gestapo) arriving at their doorsteps without any hesitation, allowing them to stay in their place that became known as "de schuilplaats" (Dutch for "the hiding place"). In February 1944, Corrie and her entire family were betrayed to the authorities. They were sent first to Scheveningen prison, where her father died a few days later; and then to the infamous Ravensbrück concentration camp, where her sister Betsie died. Corrie was released on Christmas day of 1944; but it was later learned that her freedom was actually due to clerical error, as all female captives her age in the camp were executed the week after. After the war, she traveled the world as a preacher of the Gospel, emphasizing on God's forgiveness and love. This remarkable lady even forgave one of the cruelest former camp guards who came up to her during one of her sermons in Germany, an event she recounted in her book "Tramp for the Lord." Ten Boom was honored as one of the "Righteous Among the Nations" by Israel's Yad Vashem in 1967.

"For a long moment we grasped each other's hands, the former guard and the former prisoner. I had never known God's love so intensely as I did then." - "Tramp for the Lord" by Corrie ten Boom

Prince Constantin Karadja (1889 - 1950)

Romanian Diplomat and Barrister

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(Prince Constantin Karadja in 1916)

Karadja was the Romanian Consul-General in Berlin (1931 - 1941) and the director of the consular department in the Romanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1941 - 1944). Profoundly influenced by humanistic education he received in England, he adhered to the principles of international law concerning human rights. As a person of strong resolve, he never gave in to political pressures but exerted great pains at diplomatic level to protect the rights of Romanian citizens in various parts of Europe, irregardless of religion or ethnicity. Once, he received orders to stamp the word "Jew" onto the passports of Romanian Jews, he responded in protest that such act will worsen their conditions in Germany, somehow placing needless obstacles to their return to Romania. For his decisive actions in favor of Jews of Romanian citizenship that also benefited many others from Hungary, France and Germany, he was tagged by the German authorities as a "persona non grata." Thanks to his efforts, 600 French Jews, 10,000 Romanian Jews, 51,000 Hungarian Jews and a few dozen German Jews returned or migrated to Romania, saved from the very clutches of their Nazi pursuers. In 2005, Karadja was posthumously honored for his actions as "Righteous among the Nations" during a ceremony held at the Israeli embassy in Berlin.

Feng Shan Ho (1901 - 1997)

Chinese Diplomat

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Ho was named Consul General of the Chinese consulate in Vienna in 1938, the year when Austria was annexed into Greater Germany by the Nazi regime (Anschluss). After Kristallnacht (Nazi-coordinated attacks on the Jews) later in the year, the situation became increasing difficult for Austrian Jews who were required to show proof of emigration, normally a visa, in order to leave the country. Out of humanitarian concern and in direct violation of the orders of his superior, Ho freely granted visas to Shanghai and continued to do so until 1940 when he was relieved of his duty. Undeniably, thousands of Jewish individuals and families were able to leave for Shanghai, from where a majority would soon after leave for Australia and Hongkong. Ho was posthumously recognized with the title "Righteous among the Nations" in 2001 and came to be known as the "China's Schindler."

More Holocaust-themed articles:

·        Heroes of the Holocaust & Their Stories of Courage 1

·        Famous Holocaust Survivors

·        Six Classic Holocaust Literatures