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Some alchemy was practiced in China and India before the birth of Christ. But it developed into a major system in Egypt during the next 300 years. The Greek-speaking scholars of Alexandria used it in trying to explain how Egyptian artisans made things. Greek-Egyptian alchemy spread through Syria and Persia to the Arabs. It spread to Western Europe during the 1100's and 1200's.

Alchemists drew their theories of matter from the ancient Greeks. They believed that all matter was made up of a single, formless substance. Alchemists thought this substance became the four elements--earth, air, fire, and water--when combined with hot or cold and wet or dry. They thought they could change one substance into another merely by changing the balance of these elements, a process called transmutation. This theory led them to try producing gold from other metals. In the early 1500's, Swiss scientist Paracelsus tried to substitute sulfur, mercury, and salt for earth, air, fire, and water. Alchemists also searched for the philosopher's stone (a magical substance that was supposedly able to make the transmutation process easier).

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Gold's lasting quality led many persons to believe that they would find the secret of long life or even immortality if they could discover how to make gold from lesser substances. The Chinese once believed that eating from golden dishes prolonged life.

Alchemy was associated with many religious beliefs. It was believed that the techniques used to make gold were symbolically related to death, corruption, regeneration, and resurrection. Alchemy and astrology became closely related because of the belief that each heavenly body represented and controlled a certain metal. Some thought the sun represented gold; the moon, silver; Mars, iron; Venus, copper; Jupiter, tin; Saturn, lead; and Mercury, the metal mercury, also called quicksilver. Alchemists believed that the positions of these bodies influenced the success or failure of their work.

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From Enstein’s theory of relativity, time dilatation and time perception are viewed possible. Hypothetically, the dilatation of space-time continuum can cause a massively spinning cylindrical energy that should connect the (a) progressing and (b) reversing time-space continuum. Consequently, a negative energy will be formed creating a throat like center and a connecting mouth, which is otherwise known as the wormhole. Theoretically, the cylindrical spinning of energy can actually transport an object into a different time period due to the distortion of space time continuum. However, wormholes are absolutely collapsible and can easily disappear.

If an object is caught during its collapse, the object is theoretically crushed due to the extensive pull of gravity. The key to this transport is the powerful energy pulling the object towards its opening – similar to black hole – and theoretically transporting the object to the other side of the hole. Nevertheless, time dilated wormhole connects time differently through the wormhole than outside it; hence, time traveling should coincide mainly within the formed cylindrical vortex. Indeed, such hypothetical methodology of time travel only allows a person to travel in the past.

There are hundreds of different proposals, theories and ideas on how time travel can progress. In fact, the idea of time traveling continues to evolve as seen from the ideas of the earlier time travel theorists and the present scientists.

On the other hand, the most bizarre or unbelieving time travel theory that exists so far is time “traveling through a broken sink”. Hypothetically, one can travel by digging in deeper and deeper into their sink… This is according to the person claiming to have traveled in the future by doing such “accidental experiment”.

Such claims can be very hard to believe. However, faking the tattoos and the similarities of their physical stature are somehow disturbing. Nevertheless, the discovery of time travel is now approaching and sooner or later the possibility of man traveling in all sorts of time periods will no longer be a fanned fiction.

An ancillary benefit of all the science we gain from is some entertaining television programs that are very informative and just plain entertaining. For example I love this show called Myth Busters where these guys try and put urban legends to a scientific test. But my favorite show of this type is called Sports Science. They turned this huge warehouse into a sports study lab. They use modern science to test things related to sports. Like how much thrust is required to dunk a basketball for example.

It was a recent episode I saw that inspired this article. Let me state very clearly that I loved the episode and continue to be impressed with how they test and present the material. So I am not speaking out in anger or making any assertions toward the makers of the show. This is just an example of how easy it is to oversimplify or even mislead people with science. Of which I am not anti science I am just sensitive to the potential of a corruption of facts.

In one segment they were performing a test to determine if heat or cold would have a tangible effect on the distance of flight of a golf ball. As is the case in most scientific experiments the variables are created by the scientists doing the experiment. Which is normal of course. In this case they went to the testing site at the Titleist company known of course for making golf balls. They proceeded to take a significant number of golf balls and heat them and obviously many others were subjected to cold. Now keep in mind that the main objective was to determine what effect this would have on the distance a golf ball could be driven. So to make all things equal they used a machine that is designed to swing a club perfect every time it hits a golf ball. Which makes perfect sense since the only difference between the golf balls now, were some were hot and some were cold. As a result the hot golf balls traveled consistently 10 yards (in the air) further than the cold golf balls. And as was shown through some really cool graphics, this was because the heat allowed more of the surface of the golf ball to be struck by the club. At the end of this part a voice over says "so if you want to add 10 yards to your drive heat up your golf balls". Which would have been funnier if he didn't add the word golf in front of the word balls but that's just a juvenile humor reference by me.

This is where I "drive" home the point. Actually this test does not prove that anyone in particular would gain 10 yards on their drive. Yes the test was valid and the data received was factual. A heated golf ball can travel farther than a cold golf ball. The reason that the word can should be added is simple. Remember the variables of the test were created by the team of scientists. What golfer whether professional or novice has a perfect swing? In the show they even make sure to say that they are using the machine because "even Tiger Woods doesn't have a perfect swing everytime". Which again you had to do to make all things equal to properly compare the heated and cold golf balls. But it is an exaggeration to at least a degree to say this test proved that anyone could take a heated golf ball on a course with them and drive the ball 10 yards farther. Why do I say this?

Well the test didn't allow for many other variables. For one we already established the golfer was a machine. Well depending on how well you swing a golf club it's impossible to account for all the other potential obstacles that would prevent your golf ball from flying any distance whether your ball is hot or cold. So not only did this test not factor in the ability of the golfer, it did not measure the effect of the weather conditions or the elevation at which you are playing golf. Nor did they test different brands of golf balls. They did not consider the variety of clubs that are on the market. You get where I am going here.

My point is the test was very enjoyable, compelling and very useful. It completed an objective and provided factual data. However in the end we need to be careful with how we apply this information or the conclusions we take from it. Far to many times intelligent minds mix facts with presumption of what those facts mean. And of course people in general are prone to jump to conclusions so it is not exclusive to scientists. However if someone is rightfully repected for their work and profession manipulates the facts it can open the door for people to subtly or even overtly use factual data to appear to support what is really an assumption or an agenda. Regardless if it was meant to harm people, convince people or just impress people this is a line we shouldn't cross.

So I tip my hats to all those working hard in the lab and in the field for their dedication and loyalty. But to those who are reckless and careless by taking facts and molding them to their liking I ask "please stop?"

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Einstein in his twilight years.

While at the pinnacle of his scientific greatness, the mainstream media in their many conversations with the creator of the famous Special and General Theory of Relativity was centered on his genius and scientific achievements, not more on his religious convictions which seemed out of question because of his countless allusions to some sort of divine that appeared to point out to the personal Christian God in which Einstein was known to be a devotee in his boyhood.

Despite of the initial successes of his theories at explaining previously observed yet unexplained natural phenomena such as the anomalous orbit of Mercury and the prediction of the bending of light passing at the vicinity of the Sun, his theory was not spared from adverse criticisms, maybe due to the theory having permeated almost every aspect of human intellectual endeavor -literature, philosophy and religion. The two grand scientific theories thus went into becoming a subject of heated debates among scholars from different fields.

Arising from the controversial nature of his theories, Einstein, perhaps the greatest theoretical physicist in science history would later saw himself at odds with many high-profile people from different facets of society including the once influential Catholic Church. For one, Cardinal O'Connel of the state of Boston openly attacked Einstein by giving a vehement warning to the youth of America that the General Theory of Relativity “cloaked the ghastly apparition of atheism and “befogged speculation, producing doubt about God and his Creation” (Clark,1971,413-414).

This adverse clerical pronouncement permeated the consciousness of the Cardinal's comrades in the church. On April 24, 1929, Rabbi Herbert Goldstein of New York dialed Einstein to inquire, “Do you believe in God?” (Sommerfield, 1949,103), Einstein's return message was a statement that would the next day hit the news headlines across the United States and shortly the world: “ I believe in Spinoza's God who concerns himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings ,” clarifying all his previous God-alluding statements. "I can not accept any concept of God based on the fear of life or the fear of death or blind faith. I can not prove to you that there is no personal God, but if I were to speak of him I would be a liar." 

Einstein went even more, revealing he was an agnostic. In one of his work, he wrote:"I cannot conceive of a God who rewards and punishes his creatures, or hasa will of the kind that we experience in ourselves. Neither can I nor would I want to conceive of an individual that survives his physical death; let feeble souls, from fear or absurd egoism, cherish such thoughts. I am satisfied with the mystery of the eternity of life and with the awareness and a glimpse of the marvelous structure of the existing world, together with the devoted striving to comprehend a portion, be it ever so tiny, of the Reason that manifests itself in nature." [Albert Einstein, The World as I See It American Institute of Physics Online]. Judging him on the strength of this revelation, Einstein must be an atheist.

Until his death, Einstein maintained his belief of a God equated to the order and harmony in the universe or the natural laws that were gradually brought to light through deep research in science. Steven Weinberg (1992), an American astrophysicist noted on Einstein's religious conviction "But what possible difference does it make to anyone if we use the word "God" in place of "order" or "harmony," except perhaps to avoid the accusation of having no God?" Highly agreeable, and though Einstein's belief was glaringly at variance with most of us, still he deserved respect not only for his remarkable science but his being a product of his subtle personal opinions that we are perhaps incapable to comprehend.

More and more businesses are looking at their ‘green credentials' and how they can use them as a bargaining chip in a highly competitive market. Many are making a genuine effort to reduce waste and energy consumption, increase recycling, and to look at alternative energy sources. Others claim to be carbon neutral.

Mankind and Mother Nature

Everything we do leaves a carbon footprint. By our very design, humans and animals give out carbon dioxide each time we exhale (and methane from other orifices). Since the dawn of time mankind has lit fires to cook on and keep warm. This releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. However, the planet balances out the oxygen-breathing, CO2 producing fauna with flora. Plants and trees take in CO2 and give out oxygen.

Since the Industrial Revolution though, mankind's capability to produce CO2 has increased dramatically, and to make way for a rapidly expanding population forests have been destroyed. We are no longer living in harmony with Mother Nature and we are producing far more CO2 than She can deal with.

Carbon Neutral

So what is ‘carbon neutral'? Well, using some fancy calculations you can work out your carbon footprint. The theory is that if you offset the same amount of carbon as you are producing you are then ‘carbon neutral'. You can donate money to projects designed to offset a certain amount of carbon. This can be through reforestation or sustainable energy sources such as wind farms or hydro-electric plants, to name but a few.

Sounds great, doesn't it? Until you search online for a ‘carbon calculator' and realise that it's not an exact science. Different websites use different calculations, and a lot of it is guess-work and estimation. Then there are the projects themselves: in the case of a forestry project the amount of carbon saved is an estimation, often over 100 years.

To complicate matters more the carbon-offsetting industry is unregulated, which means nobody is keeping an eye on them. An investigation by the Guardian newspaper revealed that in some cases projects were unlikely to offset the amount of carbon originally forecast or promised. There is also nothing stopping a company selling ‘carbon credits' for a project that hasn't started yet, or simply doesn't exist. And how many companies may have bought the same credits?

Going Green

Despite all this, those projects that are in existence are working towards the greater good. Managing forests, preventing further deforestation, encouraging communities to use the energy sources they have more efficiently and investing in renewable energy, all these things are a positive step in the right direction.

Raising money for projects like these cannot be easy and credit should be given to the enterprising idea of exploiting the commercial world's eagerness to cash in on a ‘quick win'. If businesses are willing to sponsor ‘green' projects then why should they be stopped?

Emperor's New Clothes

Unfortunately, for the businesses who believe they are going ‘carbon neutral', carbon offsetting can be likened to The Emperor's New Clothes. In the case of forestry projects, a business can produce more carbon in ten years than the forest could neutralise in a century. And if the forest already exists then is it really offsetting anything?

As attractive as the ‘low hanging fruit' may be to a business carbon offsetting is not going to save the planet. Reducing carbon footprints can only be truly achieved from within, by making an effort to actually make a difference.

Medical Science

It cannot be disputed that medical science has made tremendous advances in understanding and treating the human body.

Over the past few hundred years, continued research, technology, diagnosis and treatment, coupled with the development of preventative vaccinations, have almost doubled the average human life expectancy.

But medical science cannot claim definitive knowledge in every field, and each discovery or breakthrough gives rise to further questions.

Despite all the amazing medical success stories, if you consider the common everyday illnesses, it becomes clear that much about the human body and its afflictions remain a mystery to medical science. For example, there is still no cure for the common cold, and the cause and cure for many types of headache and migraine are unclear.

Research is ongoing, but is wholly dependent upon funding, which is simply not available for every field of medicine.

Where is Consciousness?

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Many scientific papers assume that the seat of consciousness - the self, personality or soul - is located in the brain, along with short- and long-term memory.

Evidence is collated by scientific observation of patients, who lose memory or specific personality traits as a consequence of localized brain trauma.

However, more recent studies have observed that neural cells are found not only in the brain, but also in the heart.  In fact, 65% of all heart cells are neural cells. The heart's function cannot therefore be classified as merely a pump. The heart communicates with the brain and every other major organ in the body biochemically, with the production of the hormone ANF - Atrial Natriuretic Factor.

Potentially, therefore, consciousness could be seated within the heart or any other major organ.

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Moving Toward Consciousness

Some scientists have proposed a theory of Cell Memory, in which memory and consciousness are stored within every cell in the human body.

Others theorize that consciousness is external to the body, and is seated within the electromagnetic field within and surrounding every human. In this theory, neural cells are merely the transmitter and interpreter for the consciousness.

Transfer of Consciousness Through Organ Transplant

The following cases are only examples. This is not a definitive list, and there are many more documented cases:

1. A former professional dancer, in 1988 Claire Sylvie received a heart and lung transplant after suffering from Primary Pulmonary Hypertension. After the operation, she developed a taste for beer, Snickers bars, green peppers and fried chicken, none of which she had liked prior to the operation. She lost her attraction to men, and her daughter noticed that she had developed a masculine demeanour and walk. She began to have dreams of talking to a tall thin man with sandy coloured hair called Tim, whom she felt close to. After investigation through the hospital administration, she discovered that the heart and lung donor was an 18-year-old man named Tim, who had been killed in a motorcycle accident. After contacting his family, she discovered he'd loved beer, Snickers and fried chicken.
   
   
2. 63-year-old William Sheridan, from New York, had a heart transplant operation. After recovering from surgery, Mr. Sheridan developed a passion for art. Prior to the transplant, he had neither interest in nor talent for the subject. As his skills blossomed, he discovered that his heart donor was an artist who had spent his life painting.
   
   
3. An eight-year-old girl received a heart from a 10-year-old girl who had been murdered. The transplant recipient began to experience vivid dreams about being murdered. The dreams were so vivid, and her explanations so detailed, that the police were able to arrest and convict the murderer purely upon her evidence.
   
   
4. A young man came out of transplant surgery saying, “Everything is copacetic”. His mother said that he had never used the word before. After his transplant, he used the phrase all the time. It was subsequently discovered that the donor and his wife used the word.  It was a private signal between them: after an argument, the word meant that it was time for them to make up. The donor's wife reported that the couple had had an argument before the accident, and had not yet made up when her husband died.
   
   
5. An 18-year-old boy who wrote songs and poetry was killed in a car accident. A year after he died, his parents discovered an audiotape of a song entitled “Danny, My Heart is Yours,” which was about the fact that he was destined to die and give his heart to another. The family discovered that the donated heart recipient was called Danielle. The family contacted Danielle and played her the song. Despite having never heard it before, she was able to sing along.
   
   
6. A 29-year-old lesbian, who was a fast food junkie, received a heart from a 19-year-old “man crazy” vegetarian woman. After her operation, she found that she could no longer eat meat, as it made her sick. More strikingly, her sexual orientation completely changed and she became engaged to a man.
   
   
7. A seven-month-old baby received a heart from a 16-month-old boy who had drowned. The donor had a mild form of cerebral palsy, mostly on the left side of his body. The recipient, who did not display such symptoms prior to the transplant, developed the same stiffness and shaking on the left side of his body as the donor.
   
   
8. Australian girl Demi-Lee Brennan underwent a liver transplant. It was found after the operation that Demi's blood type had changed to that of the donor, from O- to O+. Medical staff also discovered that her immune system had been almost totally replaced by that of the donor.
   
   
9. Cheryl Johnson from Preston, UK, underwent a liver transplant. She had read trashy novels all her life, but after surgery felt compelled to read the classics of such authors as Dostoevsky, and felt that both her personality and intellect had changed considerably following the transplant.
   
   
10. In an truly unusual case, Sonny Graham, after receiving a new heart, tracked down the donor's family and instantly fell in love with the donor's widow and married her. 12 years later, having shown no signs of unhappiness or depression, Sonny shot himself without warning. Sonny's donor shot himself under uncannily similar circumstances.
    
    
11. Lynda Gammons from Lincolnshire, UK, donated one of her kidneys to her husband Ian. Since the operation, Ian has developed a love of baking, cleaning, shopping and gardening. Prior to the transplant, he loathed all forms of housework.
    
    
12. A 56-year-old college professor received a heart from a 36-year-old police officer.  The officer was shot in the face whilst attempting to arrest an unkempt, unshaven drug dealer. After the transplant, the professor was plagued with dreams in which he saw the face of Jesus, followed by a bright flash of light. He would then feel an intense painful burning sensation in his face. When he reported the visions, the professor had no prior knowledge of the donor or how he had died.

Possible Explanations

Any further research in this field must take into account the following points:

• Transplant patients have undoubtedly been through significant trauma, which could encourage them to embrace life and possible re.think their lifestyle, leading to changes in habits and ultimately personality.
  
  
• As patients, they will have been prescribed strong pre- and post-operative medication, which could also have a significant effect upon one's personality.
  
  
• Receipt of an organ as a result of another person's death may cause a conscious or subconscious guilt complex in the recipient, which may lead to a change in outlook or personality.

Continued Research

40-50% of the world's liver transplant patients are from China, due to pollution and a high incidence of hepatitis in the country. The Chinese Academy of Sciences is currently carrying out extensive research to examine behavioral changes in patients following liver transplants.

Research is also underway at the University of Arizona on a sample of more than 300 transplant patients.

The unexplained phenomenon of transferred memory and consciousness cannot be ignored by the medical community. It offers valuable insight into the existence of human consciousness after death, and may help us find where consciousness is seated in the body.

Concept of Global Warming Widely Accepted

 

“Global Warming” has definitely impacted the world, whether it be from an actual temperature rise of the earth or the steady rise in the number of those who believe the earth is undergoing changes that have never before occurred…all because of humans' way of life. Climate change has become an ongoing event that threatens man's survival on earth, some believe. We are told that research shows us that the world has become hotter than at any time during the past 1000 years. Some scientists tell us that global warming is changing population sizes, growth rates, timing of plant flowering, as well as changing the intensity and frequency of storms, droughts, and is also melting glaciers which raise the level water of the earth's oceans. Humans' way of life is said to cause this potentially devastating climate change that is said to be caused by the emission of heat trapping gases produced by vehicles, power plants, industrialization, and the cutting down of the earth's forests. It is thought that as gases are expelled over the earth, they act as a cover which over-heats the planet and is a threat to our very existence. We are told this by much of the news media because this is the widely accepted view they want us to believe although there are many scientists in the world who do not hold the same view as I have described according to public documentation.

Cities That Existed Before Automobiles or Industrialization Found Buried

 

While the concept of “global warming” is relatively new, change in the earth is as old as the earth itself. A few years ago archaeologists located, it is believed, sites of ancient Phoenician harbors in seaports from Mediterranean trade thousands of years ago. Geologists attempted to map out former coastlines that have been buried by years and years of sediment. In the 1930's, we are told that a French archaeologist, Antoine Poidebard, found the location of a harbor of ancient Tyre on the Lebanese coast, which is now submerged. Later work is said to have found a part of the old city. These findings tell us that the earth has undergone changes for many, many years and whole cities have become extinct. Somehow, when we read of a buried city, its psychological impact is not as great until we see parts of a city under water such as we all witnessed with Hurricane Katrina. It is thought that places where people once lived have been covered by water due to rising sea levels or other phenomena that occurred before the automobile and industrialization which are blamed today for much of earth's changing climate.

Records of Earth's Temperatures Less Than 300 Years Old

 

Civilizations have inhabited the earth long before the invention of automobiles, power plants, industrialization, thermometers, and evidence of the changing earth has been found in buried cities discovered in archeological digs. In 1724, two hundred eighty-four years ago, Gabriel Fahrenheit invented the first mercury thermometer. To say that the earth is warming today at a rate that has never before occurred during the last 1000 years can only be a guess and is not backed up by written records. There was no way to measure the earth's temperature before the invention of thermometers.

Israeli Astrophysicist Nir Shaviv

 

There are scientists today who do not believe that the earth is warming and some believe the earth may actually be cooling. Israeli astrophysicist Nir Shaviv, we are told, has been doing research for years to establish a connection between rising levels of CO2 and rising temperatures. In his study, Dr. Shaviv found that meteorites that fell to the Earth after passing through the Milky Way sustained up to 10% more cosmic ray damage than others. That kind of cosmic ray variation, Dr. Shaviv believes, could alter global temperatures by as much as 15% --ample to switch ice ages on or off and evidence of the extent to which cosmic forces influence Earth's climate. Dr. Shaviv believes that any warming of the earth is due to solar activity. He writes in his research that “small but statistically significant temperature variations (of about 0.1°C) exist in the global temperature, following the 11 year solar cycle.” Dr. Shaviv further writes “One mechanism which can give rise to a notable solar/climate link was suggested by the late Edward Ney of the U. of Minnesota, in 1959. He suggested that any climatic sensitivity to the density of tropospheric ions would immediately link solar activity to climate. This is because the solar wind modulates the flux of high-energy particles coming from outside the solar system.” To read more of Dr. Shaviv's research findings, check out his website at http://www.sciencebits.com/ice-ages.

Scientific Truth Requires Open Mind

 

The main point that I would like to make from a non-scientific observation is that hearing the entire account of any given theory certainly cannot offend and listening with an open mind might even move us to the truth about global warming. To accept a theory without substantial evidence or without making an allowance for other possibilities contain greater potential for harm. To change the civilized world's way of life because of an unproven theory will not be an advancement for mankind, but a regression. While industrialized nations of the world should limit air pollution and waste of valuable natural resources, differing views should be scrutinized thoroughly. Not to do so will give credence to, as well as endorse, those theories that exist only due to the assimilation of the most advantageous marketing approach and will limit man's ability to prepare for a real future whether ready or not.

 

Gene therapy is the process of inserting genetic material into an organism in order to alter genetic code. (1) The modification of the genome (a change in its structure) will change how it codes everything in the organism (function). An example of this expression of the structure-function relationship is the correction of genetic defects that result in the malformation of proteins. The most common method is to insert a gene into the nonspecific portion of the genome: in other words, the non-functional portion of our genes becomes helpful. (1) This can be done by splitting a genetic helix (figure 1) and exchanging genetic portions or inserting a gene within the helix. The portions (detailed in Figure 2) exchanged are the interior of the helix, which then recombines. The atomic genetic helix (Figure 3) outlines how the chemical composition can be easily altered (theoretically) in order to accommodate changes in the genetic coding.

Figure 1: Genetic helix. Figure 2: Detailed genetic helix. Figure 3: Atomic genetic helix.

Viral Gene Therapy

Gene therapy is frequently conducted with viruses, but has been known to be performed using bacterial vectors as well. (7) Different viruses affecting humans target different parts of the body, such as respiratory or intestinal, due to molecular flags that the viral receptors look for. If the location of a cancer is known, then the specific types of viruses could be utilized to target that area in order to correct the genetic error. The genetic material within a virus can be exchanged for different genetic material: thus accomplishing a different purpose. For example, an intestinal cancer could use the viral shell of a virus that specifically targets intestine cells; instead of injecting an illness, however, the modified DNA within the virus would be injected into it and correct the genetic disorder causing cancer. The specific locations for certain cancers can be located by methylating the sample DNA. (5) Due to the lengthy explanation of the methylation of DNA, I will not go into further detail, other than it is simply chemical methylation: the introduction of CH3. For example, if the gene EPHA3 (a combination of different molecules specifically structuring genetic material using nucleic acids) at the map 3p11.2 were to be methylated (using chemical methylation), leukemia would be a result. Using this knowledge, gene therapy could be implemented in order to counter-act the leukemia at map 3p11.2. (4, 5) The genetic map is simply the location of a gene within the genome relative to the other genes.

There are many different types of viral vectors used in viral gene therapy:

• Retroviruses - A class of viruses that can create double-stranded DNA copies of their RNA genomes. These copies of its genome can be integrated into the chromosomes of host cells. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus.
• Adenoviruses - A class of viruses with double-stranded DNA genomes that cause respiratory, intestinal, and eye infections in humans. The virus that causes the common cold is an adenovirus.
• Adeno-associated viruses - A class of small, single stranded DNA viruses that can insert their genetic material at a specific site on chromosome 19.
• Herpes simplex viruses - A class of double-stranded DNA viruses that infect a particular cell type, neurons. Herpes simplex virus type 1 is a common human pathogen that causes cold sores. (1)

These viral vectors find their host cell through the use of the receptors on the target cells in the designated cellular surface. The virus then slips through the semi-permeable membrane of the cell and injects the DNA into the nucleus of the cell.

(10) Figure 4: Gene therapy using an adenovirus vector.

Figure 4 outlines the use of an adenovirus vector in viral gene therapy. This emphasizes the huge change in the virus' original function when contrasted with figure 5. The genetically modified virus no longer tries to take over the cell and replicate; it simply injects the DNA required without the destruction of the cell. This is because the gene in the original virus is what mechanised the creation of more viruses and, ultimately, the destruction of the host cell. Since this DNA was exchanged, it now functions as it was engineered to.

Figure 5: General virus functions.

Alternative Gene Therapy

There are many other methods of gene therapy. A brief outline of these includes the direct insertion of a gene by soaking a tissue in a solution containing high quantities of the desired DNA. However, due the economic purposes it is not feasible. It is expensive and the tissue has to be taken and then re-inserted into the patient, or the individual will be a walking genetic reaction if the tissue is drowned within his body (figure 6). As well, only certain (few) tissues accept this method for the acquisition of genes. (1)

Figure 6: The genetic modification of cells; the re-introduction of these cells into a patient.

Alternatively, there is also the use of bacteria, which is very similar to the use of viral vectors. They both have their genetic structure modified, and they both inject the gene into their target cell. Bacteria are more difficult to make target-specific, however, and thus are less favoured. (4)

Cancer

Cancer is one type tissue which has differentiated away from its original purpose. What is special about cancer is that it undergoes mitosis without self-termination. As such, this tissue becomes invasive on other surrounding tissues, often destroying it to make room for itself. Figure 7 an example of the invasive nature of cancer. (12)

Figure 7: Various stages of cancer.

A cancerous cell is determined by its inability to self-terminate. As this cell divides, it creates another cancerous cell, until there is a tissue of cancerous cells. This tissue develops its own vessels in order to take blood from its surroundings and feed itself for its further growth. The root of the problem, however, is that the "suicide gene" is deactivated. The suicide gene cannot be targeted itself, but the cancer itself can be targeted. There are many targetable proteins on cancer, in which the proper modifications to a virus could become attractive. (3)

Cancers can be targeted by the specificity of the cancer. Cancers have different methods of becoming cancerous, and below is a list of the number of known cancer genes to date distinguished by their method of mutation. For instance, the amplification section lists the 7 known cancer genes which are amplified. An example of such would be ovarian cancer. When an individual has ovarian cancer, a cancer gene is amplified and can thus be identified. (2)

Cancer Gene Census

Sorted By

• Amplification
• Chromosome
• Frameshift Mutation
• Germline Mutation
• Large Deletion
• Missense Mutation
• Nonsense Mutation
• Other Mutation
• Somatic Mutation
• Splicing Mutation
• Symbol
• Translocation

Number

• 7
• 367
• 67
• 68
• 28
• 87
• 63
• 10
• 330
• 42
• 367
• 275

Cancer is developed through a stepwise mutation of one cell. It is only when this cell divides that the cancer starts to become a cancerous tissue. Many times our body gets rid of the malignant cell before it develops into a cancerous tissue, but when the cell divides without getting destroyed, cancer results. (11) See figure 8 for an outline of cancerous mutation.

Figure 8: Progressive cancer mutation.

Figure 9: Cancerous neuron.

Figure 9: a brain cancer cell. Figure 10: a cancer cell being attacked by the immune system.

Figure 10: Breast cancer cell attacked by immune system.

Current Research

Today there is already some research into fighting cancer with gene therapy. This included methods which embed DNA which enable surrounding tissue to attack cancer cells, as well as targeting the cancer itself and attempting to weaken it enough for your body to better fight it off. (8)

One of the most interesting approaches to curing cancer with viral gene therapy is the introduction of a "suicide gene" into the cancer, thus causing it to self terminate; this allows for the body to heal over the damaged spot while the cancer continues to remove itself. (8)

Viral gene therapy is not limited to curing cancer, however. This method is being used to cure other genetic diseases. In fact, the very first clinical trial for viral gene therapy was on the disease ADA, a serious and rare genetically imposed immunodeficiency disorder. (8)

Due to the potential dangers of viral gene therapy (such as the accidental introduction of a gene into a different cell or tissue), laborious steps have to be taken before a clinical trial is considered, and extensive trials are made following approval. So far, there have been no uses of viral gene therapy outside of clinical trials. (8)

Conclusion

Due to the genetic mutation which causes cancer, viral gene therapy appeals to be an appealing method to attempt to cure it despite the risks during the clinical trials. Gene therapy also seems a promising route to cure or help cure any genetic disorder. However, the risks are high, as the insertion of an unstable gene could result in a mutation which could worsen the conditions instead of treat them. As such, gene therapy is a very promising and real opportunity; with great promise comes great risk, however. Hopefully the use of viral gene therapy can help make cancer a pandemic for the history books.

The Biblical Creation

Let's first review each theory. We'll start with the creation as described in the Bible:

Day 1: The earth is without form, covered with water, and dark. God creates light and divides the light from the darkness. He calls the light day and the darkness night.

Day 2: God creates an expanse or firmament that divides the waters into those that remain on the face of the earth and those that remain in the air. He calls the expanse "Heaven."

Day 3: God brings up dry land above the level of the water and the earth is now ready for its first living organisms. He creates the plants.

Day 4: God creates the sun, the moon, and the stars and places them for signs of the seasons, days, and years.

Day 5: God creates the fishes and the birds.

Day 6: God first places the land animals on the earth, then finally, creates humans and gives them dominion over all His other creations.

Day 7: God rests

The Scientific Creation

The scientific theory of the creation of our earth begins with the Big Bang Theory. The Big Bang Theory describes the creation of the universe, which also explains how our specific sun and earth came to be. The Big Bang Theory states that the universe started with a giant explosion. Space and time themselves were created, as well as the matter that forms the stars, planets, and every other element in the Universe.

Our sun was formed from some of this matter. Gravity caused a collection of gases to swirl together and form the sun. The gravity generated by this new sun also caused planets to form in the same manner. The matter forming the earth started as a smaller object, but it gathered more and more matter. This matter became very hot, which caused it to form water and several elements and gases. As the earth cooled, some water was broken down, causing the atmosphere to be created. The earth's crust also hardened as the result of this cooling and atmospheric water condensed into oceans.

The first living things then began to form. They began as single cell organisms in the form of algae and evolved in this order: multicellular organisms, fish, land algae, millipedes, sharks, amphibians, insects, ferns, reptiles, beetles, roaches, bees, crocodiles, mammals, kangaroos, cranes, small rodents, storks, rabbits, monkeys, koalas, parrots, chimpanzees, humans. Each animal took millions of years to develop.

Evolution explains how organisms can become evolved species by the process of natural selection. Simply put, natural selection means that those organisms that have superior traits survive and pass on those traits, while their less favorably endowed cousins die.

Some Surprising Similarities

By comparing these two explanations of the earth's creation, we can find that there are actually many similarities between them, especially in the earliest stages of the creation. They both describe water being present on the face of the earth and that water being divided to form the atmosphere. Dry land then appears above the water that remains on the earth. Without these processes, life would be limited to water dwelling organisms. Only the belated formation of the sun, moon, and stars are difficult to reconcile between the two accounts.

Although the theory of evolution doesn't specifically divide each animal group into separate stages of creation, it generally follows the same pattern as the one outlined in the Bible. Both accounts include fish among the earliest animals and humans as the last living things to be created. The theory of evolution has animals in the different groups being created simultaneously, yet they occur in patterns that are close to the same pattern outlined in groups in the Bible.

About Time

As interesting as these similarities may be, there is still the seemingly irreconcilable difference in time frames. If both the Bible and evolution were true, then it seems evolution would have to have occurred much quicker than it actually did. However, there is another explanation that may make more sense.

To us, a day is about 24 hours, so when we read that God created the world in seven days, we naturally assume that means seven 24 hour periods. However, the Bible doesn't relate the creation of the sun, moon, and stars, which are signs of the passage of time, until the fourth day of the creation. We also know that "days" on the other planets in our solar system, meaning a full rotation of a planet on its axis, range from a little under 10 hours (Jupiter) to over 5800 hours or 243 Earth days (Venus). Therefore, a day can actually be an indefinite period of time. What we assume took God no more than 168 hours might actually have taken him much longer, and yet be accurately recorded in the Bible as seven days.

Another explanation might also explain the differences in the timeline. Science uses carbon dating to determine the age of the matter it studies. That method is considered highly accurate, but it also assumes that processes have always occurred at the same rate as they are now. If processes had occurred in the past at a faster rate, carbon dating would be off by the same difference.

This idea may be supported by the Big Bang Theory. According to this theory, time and space were actually created by a difficult-to-understand anomaly we normally call an explosion. But it wasn't an explosion like we know it. At the beginning, the Universe was all contained in one hot, molten point, and matter and energy as we know it did not exist. A "big bang" occurred. The universe has been expanding ever since. If the beginning of this expansion created time and energy, then it's not inconceivable to imagine that time and energy are also changing and expanding in ways we don't understand.

A Possible Reconciliation

Still, there are differences between evolution and creationism. However, there is much we as human beings still do not understand. God has revealed to us that He created this earth and us, but He never described specifically how. He has declared to us that we are special beings, even his children. Science has never explained the mysterious energy which causes the human body to live and reason one moment and to lie cold and unmoving in death the next. Christians can't effectively refute the facts supporting many scientific theories. Likewise, science can never convince a true believer that the feelings of the Holy Spirit are nothing more than imaginations. In fact, science has never found a reasonable explanation for people's universal tendency toward belief in a supreme being.

Can evolution and God both exist? Yes, they can. In fact, given the astonishing facts science has learned about the workings of the earth and the human body, it is difficult to believe that God doesn't exist. It would be easier to say that a computer had evolved than to say that God didn't have a close hand in the creation of the amazing human being with its many perfectly balanced chemical reactions. As science continues to develop and learn new things, it can only confirm the workings of God-if He is there. And He is.

• Darwin's theory of Evolution must be true.
• Evolution is Turing Complete.
• Evolution will proceed faster in a faster computational medium.
• Hard Artificial Intelligence is feasible.

A good scientific theory must be able to make predictions which can be evaluated by observation.

Darwin's (and Wallace's) theory of evolution, hereafter referred to as "the theory of evolution", is a good scientific theory, its claims have been verified by observation of fossil records from the past. The theory of evolution predicts that some sentient beings, given enough time, are going to evolve intelligence, and that humans are but one example of such a thing.

The time required for humanity, from when we gained full-sapience to modern technology, was roughly 200,000 years.

Evolution from sentience to partial-sapience or full-sapience requires billions of years, and not all species succeed in reaching it.

Given that a species is capable of full-sapience, there is a high probability of that species existing and continuing to develop their technology along the timeline required for it to evolve sapience. It is highly probable that a species will observe other powers, possessing greater intelligence, by the time they reach sapience. Which is to say that, if we take a random sample of species evolving naturally from a universe-sized box, most of them are going to observe powers possessing greater intelligence by the time they reach sapience.

A technological civilization of a sapient species may catalyze the evolution of other sapient species, either via natural intelligence catalyzation or artificial intelligence catalyzation. This intelligence catalyzation process may be deliberate or non-deliberate. Note the following definitions:

Deliberate natural intelligence catalyzation will happen if the technological species provolves, trains or teaches less developed sentient beings to develop their technological capability.

Non-deliberate natural intelligence catalyzation will happen if the less developed sentient beings watch and learn what an already technological species does.

Deliberate artificial intelligence catalyzation happens if the technological species artificially creates intelligent agents having full-sapient capability.

Non-deliberate artificial intelligence catalyzation happens if the artificial intelligence unexpectedly results from an experiment conducted by technological species.

If a technological species happens to discover space travel, the extreme difference in conditions between worlds may force them to deliberately catalyze the evolution of new intelligent species for their economic or memetic purpose. Which means that a naturally evolved technological species may catalyze the evolution of more than one sapient species.

Since the evolution process goes faster in a faster computronium, most species are going to be derived from evolution inside faster computronium.

A naturally evolved brain is a faster computronium than a natural chemical process or the biological evolution of pre-sapient beings. The development of technology means an increase in computation demand, which fuels the development of even faster and more effective computronium.

Consequently, if we take a random species in this universe, there is a higher probability that they will be the result of evolution in the ideosphere of a technologically advanced species, rather than purely the result of natural evolution. This in turn indicates that, if we take a random species in this universe, there is a higher probability that they will have been created by a technologically advanced beings (very far more advanced than the created species, bordering on godlike), rather than the result of natural evolution.